NEW CONCERNS AND ORIENTATIONS
2.3 EDUCATION AND DISADVANTAGE Disadvantage and the School
During the l a s t ten years an i n c r e a s i n g body o f evidence has shown t h a t some groups i n A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y - the poor, country c h i l d r e n , migrants have a reduced l e v e l of p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n education
and reduced chances i n l i f e as a consequence. Students belonging to these groups have been described by the Poverty I n q u i r y as " c h i l d r e n at r i s k " . At the same t i m e , important i n i t i a t i v e s have been taken to
increase the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f disadvantaged groups i n education. This concern has been given a major impetus by the p u b l i c a t i o n o f the f i n a l r e p o r t o f the Poverty I n q u i r y i n December 1976. (18)
This r e p o r t p r o v i d e s the f i r s t comprehensive body of evidence about p o v e r t y and education i n A u s t r a l i a and i s one o f the most important documents a v a i l a b l e to t h i s and f u t u r e reviews o f e d u c a t i o n .
The Committee wishes t o emphasise the value of the approaches t h a t have been developed and funded by the A u s t r a l i a n Schools Commission but recognizes t h a t the major r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
a s s i s t i n g disadvantaged groups remains w i t h State departments. A c o n t i n u i n g concern o f State systems has been the attempt t o p r o v i d e e q u a l l y f o r schools,
i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r l o c a t i o n or the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g them. The acceptance o f t h i s i d e a l remains one o f the proud f e a t u r e s o f State education i n A u s t r a l i a . At the same time the genuine p r o f e s s i o n a l concern o f teachers f o r d i s - advantaged c h i l d r e n i s also t o be commended: they are anxious t o i d e n t i f y students at r i s k and t o respond t o t h e i r needs though perhaps wanting guidance on how t o do these t h i n g s . (19) Despite these p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s by systems and teachers the task o f overcoming disadvantage has proved a d i f f i c u l t one. The p r o v i s i o n o f a l l students w i t h equal o p p o r t u n i t i e s has been shown t o be i n s u f f i c i e n t p o s i t i v e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n such as t h a t recommended
by the CENRA Committee i n Tasmania f o r country c h i l d r e n i s necessary. (20) I n a l a r g e secondary school i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o recognise and respond t o the s p e c i a l needs o f disadvantaged s t u d e n t s . (21) The f i r s t need i s f o r teachers who are committed to meeting the needs o f disadvantaged students but a p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h l e v e l o f p r o f e s s i o n a l performance i s also r e q u i r e d . The importance o f t h i s has been u n d e r l i n e d by the Poverty I n q u i r y :
Our evidence c l e a r l y i n d e n t i f i e s the q u a l i t y o f t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t i n t e r a c t i o n as a major i n f l u e n c e among young people w i t h whom we have been d i r e c t l y concerned on both t h e i r schooling and t h e i r
expectations o f success. (22)
In t h i s l i g h t i t would be wrong t o merely take s p e c i a l a c t i o n i n a few disadvantaged schools or areas. Rather, a l l schools need t o recognise the problems o f c h i l d r e n i n a t - r i s k groups and t o develop s t r a t e g i e s f o r t a c k l i n g these problems.
I m p l i c i t i n the previous paragraphs i s the Committee's commitment to the task o f meeting the needs o f disadvantaged students.
The Committee accepts and r e a f f i r m s the i d e a l t h a t a l l groups i n s o c i e t y s h o u l d be able t o share e q u a l l y i n education and t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s chances i n l i f e should not be reduced by t h e i r
s o c i a l o r i g i n s , t h e i r sex, or the place i n which they l i v e . S o c i a l j u s t i c e demands t h a t the i n e q u a l i t i e s r e v e a l e d , f o r example, by the
Poverty and Education r e p o r t , s h o u l d be r e d u c e d .
The conclusions which the Committee has
reached about the o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the c u r r i c u l u m i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s view o f e d u c a t i o n a l
o p p o r t u n i t y . I n t h i s respect the maintenance of a common c u r r i c u l u m and the postponement o f s i g n i f i c a n t choices d u r i n g the compulsory years can be instanced. (.23) S i m i l a r l y the Committee stresses the need f o r compensatory education t o help those w i t h reduced attainment o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e i r home environment. This does not mean, however, t h a t the Committee contemplates, l e t alone seeks, a s i t u a t i o n i n which e d u c a t i o n a l outcomes w i l l be equal between students. The Committee recognises t h a t i n e q u a l i t i e s w i l l r e s u l t from i n d i v i d u a l excellence i n i n t e l l e c t and work.
Our e g a l i t a r i a n values accommodate t h i s d i f f e r e n c e and i t i s the i n e q u a l i t i e s r e s u l t i n g from s o c i a l o r i g i n s or other background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t we wish t o see minimised.
The d i s c u s s i o n so f a r has begged one c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n : t o what e x t e n t i s i t p o s s i b l e f o r schools to take a c t i o n t h a t w i l l e f f e c t i v e l y reduce
disadvantage? One view i s t h a t e d u c a t i o n i s t s have had exaggerated e x p e c t a t i o n s about the e x t e n t t o which education can be the means o f reducing s o c i a l
i n e q u a l i t y and t h a t t h i s has l e d t o i n e v i t a b l e
d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t . (.24) On t h i s view other s t r a t e g i e s such as a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f incomes or a c t i o n d i r e c t l y w i t h a d u l t s i n the community i s necessary. One
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f research evidence i s t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s between schools c o n t r i b u t e as l i t t l e as 15 per cent to v a r i a t i o n s i n e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t , the main f a c t o r s being genetic and home i n f l u e n c e s . (25)
This i s , o f course, a complex s u b j e c t i n which there i s a d i v e r s i t y o f views among eminent scholars i n the f i e l d . The Committee does not p r e t e n d t o
w r i t e the f i n a l word on the subject but i t s p o s i t i o n can be summarised as f o l l o w s : formal education i s not the most e f f e c t i v e way o f b r i n g i n g about a j u s t s o c i e t y but i t i s o f g r e a t importance i n i n c r e a s i n g or reducing the l i f e chances o f the i n d i v i d u a l .
The f o l l o w i n g conclusions a m p l i f y t h i s statement:
(.1) There are many i n e q u a l i t i e s t h a t a f f e c t education but cannot be solved through i t : an i n e q u i t a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n of income, the l a r g e number o f A u s t r a l i a n ? w i t h an income below the p o v e r t y l i n e , the i s o l a t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a between the e l i t e i n
government and commerce and i n d u s t r i a l workers, and the longer-term problems of c o u n t r y communities can a l l be i n s t a n c e d . (26) Such problems demand a broad range o f s o c i a l p o l i c i e s and schools should r e s i s t suggestions t h a t they can solve these problems alone.
(2) Schooling i s of c r u c i a l importance w i t h respect t o an i n d i v i d u a l ' s chances i n l i f e . The school a f f e c t s the way people t h i n k about themselves, how they r e l a t e t o each o t h e r and the s o r t o f work they e n t e r . The f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n from the Poverty I n q u i r y summarizes the p o s i t i o n :
I n our s o c i e t y , i t i s c l e a r t h a t c e r t a i n l i f e chances are i n c r e a s -
i n g l y determined by f o r m a l education.
'Education becomes the p r e r e q u i s i t e o f e n t r y t o most o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s i n the community.' Successful l e a r n i n g a t school stands out as a major determinant of e n t r y i n t o
s a t i s f y i n g and w e l l - p a i d employ- ment. (27)
(3) With the Poverty I n q u i r y the present Committee considers t h a t an increase i n the l i f e - c h a n c e s of disadvantaged students depends very much on what schools do.
The Poverty I n q u i r y i n v e s t i g a t e d the p o s s i b i l i t y of f o c u s i n g on s t r a t e g i e s o u t s i d e the school system b u t , on the basis of what has been the most compre- hensive i n v e s t i g a t i o n of education i n A u s t r a l i a , was l e d back t o the c o n c l u s i o n
t h a t i t was necessary t o concentrate on e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n and t h a t schools do make an i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e . (28) Schools t h a t are concerned about disadvantaged
s t u d e n t s , have wisely-conceived p o l i c i e s and are p r o v i d e d w i t h adequate resources f o r l e a r n i n g , are able t o enhance a t t a i n - ment and thus improve the l i f e - c h a n c e s of disadvantaged s t u d e n t s . (29)
This concern should be seen i n the c o n t e x t o f the needs o f disadvantaged students:
We wish t o s t r e s s the importance of schools as s o c i e t y ' s main agency f o r t e a c h i n g and l e a r n i n g a t a
time when increased knowledge and awareness are e s s e n t i a l t o personal w e l l - b e i n g and l i f e chances. Young members o f disadvantaged m i n o r i t i e s are e s p e c i a l l y dependent on schools to help them understand themselves and the demands a changing s o c i e t y i s making on them. They need t o develop the t r a d i t i o n a l s k i l l s associated w i t h formal l e a r n i n g : a b i l i t y t o comprehend and process i n f o r m a t i o n , communicate ideas and become competent t o assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as young a d u l t s . The f a c t that, the schools are f a i l - ing t o enable many young people t o acquire these s k i l l s i s a matter o f great concern. (30)
(4) I t i s also necessary t o be c l e a r t h a t a c t i o n beyond schools i s a l s o necessary, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e l a t i o n t o parents and the community. The c r u c i a l importance of r a i s i n g the e x p e c t a t i o n s o f disadvan- taged parents about education should be s t r e s s e d . Home background has c o n s i s t - e n t l y been found t o account f o r much of the v a r i a t i o n i n school a t t a i n m e n t . For example, some parents are i n a p o s i t i o n t o i n t e r v e n e and help and
c e r t a i n l y e x e r t pressure t o ensure t h a t checks due t o the d i s t u r b a n c e o f
adolescence are temporary. According to McMullen working-class p u p i l s o f t e n do not have the same support and may r e a c t by dropping out o f the whole l e a r n i n g
process. (31) I t i s thus very i m p o r t a n t t h a t the school i s accepting and s u p p o r t i v e of these s t u d e n t s .
Having s t a t e d i t s general conclusions about disadvantage and schools the Committee wishes t o focus s p e c i f i c a l l y on p a r t i c u l a r groups t h a t form disadvantaged m i n o r i t i e s i n our s o c i e t y : s o c i a l l y - disadvantaged c h i l d r e n , country c h i l d r e n and g i r l s . Migrant c h i l d r e n also form such a group but are considered s e p a r a t e l y i n t h i s r e p o r t . (32)
S o c i a l l y Disadvantaged C h i l d r e n
Clear evidence was a v a i l a b l e t o the Committee t h a t Tasmanian c h i l d r e n from s o c i a l l y - d i s a d v a n t a g e d f a m i l i e s p a r t i c i p a t e l e s s i n school than those from higher s t a t u s f a m i l i e s . I n t h i s respect Tasmania conforms t o the n a t i o n a l p a t t e r n , as the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n o f the Poverty I n q u i r y i n d i c a t e s :
C h i l d r e n from lower s t a t u s f a m i l i e s n o t o n l y p a r t i c i p a t e l e s s i n s c h o o l i n g b u t are less able t o n e g o t i a t e the school s t r u c t u r e s i n ways n o r m a l l y considered s u c c e s s f u l . . . Even among c h i l d r e n o f the same h i g h a b i l i t y groupings, those from higher s t a t u s f a m i l i e s have a much g r e a t e r chance o f completing secondary s c h o o l i n g than those from lower socio-economic groups. (33)
The Committee b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e r e are no simple s o l u t i o n s t o t h e problem t h a t has been i d e n t i f i e d . E a r l y school l e a v e r s are drawn predominantly from the s o c i a l l y disadvantaged f a m i l i e s and we b e l i e v e t h a t t h e recommendations made l a t e r i n t h i s chapter about e a r l y l e a v i n g
w i l l improve the l i f e - c h a n c e s o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n . (34) I t has been suggested t o t h e Committee t h a t some school p r a c t i c e s such as streaming or the suspension of students may u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y increase i n e q u a l -
i t i e s between poor students and o t h e r students and the Committee's recommendations on these p r a c t i c e s
should be seen i n t h i s c o n t e x t . (35) A r e p o r t from a Committee working p a r t y on "Secondary
.students a t r i s k i n Tasmania" emphasized the problem of r e c o g n i s i n g these s t u d e n t s . I t was concluded t h a t
One o f the main problems connected w i t h c h i l d r e n disadvantaged by s o c i a l
f a c t o r s l i e s i n the r e c o g n i t i o n o f those . students who need s p e c i a l h e l p . Account
, should be taken o f such clues as t r u a n c y , seeking o f exemptions t o leave school before the minimum l e a v i n g age, sudden
changes i n academic behaviour, marked, f o r example, by aggression or w i t h d r a w a l . (36) The p r i o r i t y o f t h e working p a r t y t h a t "the process o f documenting p a r t i c u l a r aspects o f disadvantage can begin and be maintained as the
student proceeds through the e d u c a t i o n a l system"
i s endorsed by the Committee.
Given the importance attached by the Poverty I n q u i r y t o t e a c h e r - p u p i l i n t e r a c t i o n i t i s note- worthy t h a t evidence f u r n i s h e d by the Tasmanian Teachers Federation suggested t h a t school s i z e may be e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n low socio-economic
s t a t u s areas where teachers have a p a r t i c u l a r need to i d e n t i f y w i t h c h i l d r e n and t h e i r problems b o t h i n and out o f school. (37) The Federation a l s o put forward evidence s u p p o r t i n g the need f o r
personnel t o make home v i s i t s and f o r l i a i s o n w i t h other bodies where t h e r e were home problems. The Committee endorses both proposals and accepts t h e recommendation o f the Poverty I n q u i r y on the matter of home v i s i t s : "Procedures be adopted, i n c l u d i n g the p r a c t i c e o f r e g u l a r home v i s i t s by school-based personnel, t o e s t a b l i s h e f f e c t i v e communication e s p e c i a l l y w i t h poor families''. (38) The general
need f o r support s e r v i c e s t o a s s i s t schools i n coping with disadvantaged c h i l d r e n i s taken up l a t e r i n
t h i s r e p o r t . (39)
Evidence was made a v a i l a b l e t o the Committee i n d i c a t i n g t h a t f i n a n c i a l hardship i s f r e q u e n t l y a f a c t o r i n the d e c i s i o n by a student t o leave school e a r l y . (40) The Committee considers t h a t schools should have access t o emergency funds t o ensure t h a t no students are l i m i t e d i n t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n school programs because o f f a m i l y p o v e r t y . (41) I t a l s o suggests t h a t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n be given by the Education Department t o a review o f means-tested personal allowances, i n c l u d i n g the d e s i r a b i l i t y o f making the allowances at present p r o v i d e d o n l y a t f o u r t h - y e a r l e v e l
a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l the compulsory secondary years (7-10). (42)
Country C h i l d r e n
I n the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h i s r e p o r t r e f e r e n c e has been made t o the many sources o f evidence gained by the Committee. Across t h i s range one o f the most s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s was the concern expressed about the disadvantages faced by country c h i l d r e n . Not only p r o f e s s i o n a l educators and researchers b u t also members o f the p u b l i c p o i n t e d t o the need f o r the Committee t o put forward proposals f o r improving the s i t u a t i o n . We are most anxious t o respond t o t h i s evidence and consider t h a t our recommendations about c o u n t r y education are among the most i m p o r t a n t i n our r e p o r t .
The p r o v i s i o n of e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s f o r country areas and the need t o give c h i l d r e n l i v i n g i n r u r a l centres adequate s c h o o l i n g has been a key concern o f A u s t r a l i a n educators since c o l o n i a l days.
But i n the new concern about disadvantage t h a t has been developing over the l a s t ten years a t t e n t i o n was i n i t i a l l y focused on the p a r t i c u l a r problems of those l i v i n g i n the i n n e r areas of the c a p i t a l c i t i e s . The present i n i t i a t i v e s respond t o c l e a r evidence from research t h a t country c h i l d r e n as a group are n o t sharing e q u a l l y i n education. A major research p r o j e c t undertaken i n Tasmania has shown t h a t an undue p r o p o r t i o n o f e a r l y school leavers comes from country schools, t h a t the lower l e v e l of p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y marked i n the l a t e r years o f secondary e d u c a t i o n , t h a t most
country c h i l d r e n have had t o leave t h e i r own d i s t r i c t to f i n d employment and t h a t country c h i l d r e n have found i t more d i f f i c u l t than c i t y c h i l d r e n t o f i n d employment t h a t o f f e r s good pay, s e c u r i t y , s t a t u s i n the community and prospects o f advancement. (43) A smaller p r o p o r t i o n o f students from country h i g h
schools than from c i t y h i g h schools continue on t o Higher School C e r t i f i c a t e l e v e l . ( 4 4 ) Other research a v a i l a b l e t o the Committee has shown t h a t c o u n t r y c h i l d r e n have lower l e v e l s of attainment i n t e s t s o f l i t e r a c y and numeracy than c i t y c h i l d r e n . ( 4 5 )
One o f the d i f f i c u l t i e s which the Committee has had t o face i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h i s evidence i s
t h a t t h e r e i s an absence o f agreement i n A u s t r a l i a as t o the causes o f the unequal p a r t i c i p a t i o n by country c h i l d r e n and consequently an absence o f any consensus about the measures which should be taken t o overcome i t . I n t h i s respect the Committee welcomes the p r o v i s i o n which the A u s t r a l i a n Schools Commission has made f o r p r o j e c t s i n s e l e c t e d country areas addressed t o i n c r e a s i n g our understanding o f the nature o f r u r a l disadvantage and developing s t r a t e g i e s f o r overcoming i t . (46) Later i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f the r e p o r t we s h a l l deal w i t h the q u e s t i o n of p r o v i d i n g adequate e d u c a t i o n a l resources by the Education Department. However, unequal p r o v i s i o n i s c e r t a i n l y not the o n l y d i f f i c u l t y and probably not the major one and i t i s necessary t o give c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o other f a c t o r s .
I t i s c l e a r t h a t one o f the potent f a c t o r s operating i n country areas i s t h a t country parents and country c h i l d r e n themselves have hopes f o r t h e i r f u t u r e , e x p e c t a t i o n s about the schooling they w i l l complete, and a s p i r a t i o n s about the work they w i l l
en t e r t h a t are lower than those o f t h e i r c i t y counter- Parts. C 4 7 )
In a sense they are l e s s ambitious and i n a c o m p e t i t i v e , m a t e r i a l i s t i c s o c i e t y t h i s i s t o t h e i r c o s t . There i s some evidence t h a t teachers going t o country areas have reduced e x p e c t a t i o n s about the a b i l i t y and p o t e n t i a l o f country c h i l d r e n . The existence o f a lower l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n a l and employment e x p e c t a t i o n among p a r e n t s , teachers and c h i l d r e n i s very important but i t i s n o t easy f o r the Committee t o recommend ways o f overcoming the problem. C e r t a i n l y t h i s i s an area i n which there i s a need f o r i n c r e a s i n g c o - o p e r a t i o n between home and school and the Committee commends t o
country schools i n i t i a t i v e s aimed a t increased p a r e n t a l and community involvement i n schools.
This seems l i k e l y t o be an important way o f r a i s i n g p a r e n t a l e x p e c t a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e f a m i l i e s who share the double disadvantage o f being poor and l i v i n g i n the country (more than a t h i r d o f A u s t r a l i a1 poor l i v e i n sparsely populated r u r a l a r e a s ) . (48)
I t i s also necessary t o emphasise s t r o n g l y t h a t the u n d e r l y i n g problems o f r u r a l A u s t r a l i a l i e outside the area o f education. The Committee accepts the conclusion o f a Tasmanian r e p o r t f o r the Poverty I n q u i r y on t h i s m a t t e r :
In c o n s i d e r i n g the problem o f r u r a l d i s a d - vantage i t should be emphasized t h a t simply to s e t aside f u r t h e r resources f o r c o u n t r y schools w i l l n o t be enough. The complex problems o f our country communities are embedded i n the p r e v a i l i n g economic and
s o c i a l f a b r i c i n A u s t r a l i a and t o concentrate on any s i n g l e aspect o f r u r a l disadvantage w i l l be inadequate As a n a t i o n we have p e r m i t t e d the gradual d e s t r u c t i o n o f c o u n t r y communities and i t i s perhaps time t h a t our s o c i e t y reappraised i t s a t t i t u d e t o them. (49) At both n a t i o n a l and s t a t e l e v e l s there would seem t o be a need f o r bodies, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a range o f
i n t e r e s t s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , t o address themselves to the f u t u r e o f r u r a l communities. So f a r as
educators are concerned i t i s necessary f o r the
Committee t o p o i n t out the danger of having u n r e a l i s t - i c a l l y high e x p e c t a t i o n s about what w i l l be achieved through a c t i o n i n the s i n g l e area of education.
Despite the sentiments expressed i n the previous paragraphs the Committee accepts t h a t i t must address i t s e l f t o the q u e s t i o n o f the p r o v i s i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l resources i n country areas. Several submissions t o the Committee focused s p e c i f i c a l l y on t h i s problem.
I t was suggested t h a t the p r o v i s i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l services f o r c o u n t r y c h i l d r e n d i d not match t h a t f o r c i t y c h i l d r e n . (.50) Problems of s t a f f i n g , c a p i t a l works and maintenance, e d u c a t i o n a l
resources such as equipment, and l i b r a r y s e r v i c e s , were i n s t a n c e d . The p a r t i c u l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s of teachers i n c o u n t r y areas were mentioned by s e v e r a l of those making submissions. (51) P a r t i c u l a r
a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n i n several submissions t o the p o s i t i o n of d i s t r i c t schools. Evidence was put forward about the advantages of small schools, the need f o r l o c a l i n i t i a t i v e s and the c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n of d i s t r i c t schools i n r e l a t i o n to the community they serve. (57J Those g i v i n g evidence on t h i s p o i n t emphasized not f u r t h e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n but upgrading so t h a t d i s t r i c t schools o f f e r e d a
comparable education t o urban h i g h schools. One submission argued t h a t d i s t r i c t schools do not have the same s t a t u s or give the same o p p o r t u n i t i e s as c i t y schools but they should be upgraded t o
become " j u n i o r h i g h s " and take a l l c h i l d r e n from the area u n t i l the end of Year 8. (52)
A f t e r c o n s i d e r i n g the range of evidence a v a i l a b l e the Committee has accepted a number of recommendations t h a t t o g e t h e r make up a
r e d i r e c t i o n o f approach t o secondary education i n country areas. The Committee i s concerned t h a t any s t r u c t u r a l l i m i t s t o f u l l o p p o r t u n i t y i n
Years 7 t o 10 should be recognized and reduced. (54) In t h i s regard the Committee has adopted the o v e r a l l
S t a n c e t h a t students i n Years 7 to 10 should be educated i n t h e i r l o c a l secondary school wherever p o s s i b l e . Such a
recommendation i s made p o s s i b l e by the Committee's approach t o the secondary c u r r i c u l u m which emphasizes experiences i n each year i n s i x d i f f e r e n t areas r a t h e r than a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f courses and l e v e l s which the small country school i s unable t o p r o v i d e . The Committee supports the i n i t i a t i v e s taken by the
Education Department t o improve e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s i n a number of d i s t r i c t schools so t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n from the d i s t r i c t can be retained, f o r secondary education. I t considers t h a t , when p r o v i s i o n s have been extended i n t h i s way, the p r a c t i c e of bussing students t o a h i g h school should not c o n t i n u e .
The Committee i s aware t h a t , p a r t l y a r i s i n g from evidence gathered d u r i n g the course of i t s d e l i b e r a t i o n s , a departmental committee has been set up t o review the f u t u r e of i n d i v i d u a l d i s t r i c t schools. The Committee recognises t h a t t h i s review may show some d i s t r i c t schools t o be too small t o p r o v i d e t h e i r secondary students w i t h an experience which w i l l be equal t o t h a t of students i n l a r g e r schools and a c c o r d i n g l y recommends t h a t the minimum enrolment r e q u i r e d f o r
a secondary school c a t e r i n g f o r students i n Years 7-to
!0 should be about f i f t y .
The Committee envisages t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r schools w i t h a smaller enrolment w i l l vary from one s i t u a t i o n t o another. The a l t e r n a t i v e s i n c l u d e c l o s u r e , the p r o v i s i o n o f e x t e r n a l s t u d i e s , the bussing o f c h i l d r e n t o a l a r g e r secondary school a f t e r Year 8, the development o f i n d i v i d u a l study programs and i n c r e a s i n g h o s t e l s u b s i d i e s . The Committee envisages t h a t the range of these a l t e r n a t i v e s w i l l be. considered by the d i s t r i c t school committee.
The Committee recognizes the important r e d i r e c t i o n of p o l i c y i m p l i e d i n i t s stance of p r o v i d i n g secondary education w i t h i n l o c a l
d i s t r i c t s and the importance of i t s recommendations f o r d i s t r i c t schools. I n accepting these p r i n c i p l e s i t . expresses confidence i n smaller secondary u n i t s . I t b e l i e v e s t h a t i t s recommendations about the
e d u c a t i o n a l program and school o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l a s s i s t these schools and enhance t h e i r v i a b i l i t y .
The Committee supports the c a l l of the CENRA r e p o r t f o r p o s i t i v e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n favour of c o u n t r y c h i l d r e n . (55) I t i s not a q u e s t i o n of country schools being l e s s w e l l provided w i t h s t a f f and of other resources but of compensatory p r o v i s i o n i n r e c o g n i t i o n of the disadvantages of c o u n t r y
s t u d e n t s . The f i r s t need i s f o r i n c e n t i v e s f o r teachers t o work i n c o u n t r y schools and t o be s a t i s f i e d t o remain t h e r e f o r some time. As expressed by the Committee's working p a r t y on c h i l d r e n a t r i s k :
Rural c h i l d r e n should be taught by teachers t r a i n e d t o recognise the s p e c i a l problems they face and who can work w i t h students and t h e i r parents t o overcome b a r r i e r s t o s u c c e s s f u l l e a r n i n g . These teachers should a p p r e c i a t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c u l t u r e , be able t o become p a r t of l o c a l s o c i a l networks and b u i l d upon
the d i s t i n c t i v e s t r e n g t h s of country people. (56) In t h i s respect the Education Department i s i n the
process o f r e v i e w i n g i n c e n t i v e s f o r teachers i n i s o l a t e d schools w h i l e the present government i s committed to improving teacher housing i n c o u n t r y areas.
The Committee recognizes the need t o p r o v i d e country c h i l d r e n w i t h s p e c i a l i s t s t a f f and f a c i l i t i e s comparable i v i t h those a v a i l a b l e t o c i t y c h i l d r e n . In evidence t o the Committee the'areas of music teaching and l i b r a r y p r o v i s i o n were shown t o be areas of s p e c i a l need.
In the area o f music i t would seem necessary f o r new ways of p r o v i d i n g s e r v i c e s t o be developed,
f o r example by s h a r i n g teachers between adjacent schools or developing s p e c i a l i s t s k i l l s i n some classroom teachers. The area of l i b r a r y p r o v i s i o n would seem p a r t i c u l a r l y important because o f the absence of resource m a t e r i a l s i n many country homes w h i l e the recent review of s c h o o l - l i b r a r y p r o v i s i o n h i g h l i g h t e d problems i n p r o v i d i n g adequate l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s i n many country communities. [57)
Several r e p o r t s about c o u n t r y schools have drawn a t t e n t i o n t o the problem o f p r o v i d i n g a wider c u l t u r a l experience f o r t h e i r s t u d e n t s . I n recent years t h e r e has been an extension of v i s i t s by groups t o country schools and o f t r i p s by country c h i l d r e n t o l a r g e r centres so t h a t they can gain c u l t u r a l experiences denied t o them l o c a l l y . (58) The Committee endorses both approaches and commends i n i t i a t i v e s such as the Education Department's f i n a n c i a l support of the "Theatre i n Education" group.
Several submissions drew the a t t e n t i o n of the. Committee t o the need f o r support s t a f f i n country schools and the Committee recommends the p r o v i s i o n of student c o u n s e l l i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o
v o c a t i o n a l choices, f u r t h e r education and w e l f a r e . ( 5 9 ) ' In our r e p o r t we have seen career education as school based and we would accept the view of the Poverty
I n q u i r y t h a t t h e r e i s an urgent need f o r a c t i o n t o
"increase the knowledge and o p t i o n s of r u r a l c h i l d r e n so they may r e a l i s t i c a l l y choose between r u r a l and urban p u r s u i t s The task of i n f o r m i n g people of t h e i r prospects b o t h l o c a l l y and i n the c i t y must be taken up by schools." (60)
G i r l s
Evidence t o the Committee suggested t h a t both males and females i n our s o c i e t y are disadvan-
taged by sexism but t h a t women are more s e r i o u s l y handicapped. (61) This evidence d e t a i l e d the ways i n which t h i s disadvantage i s r e f l e c t e d i n the school system and argued f o r the appointment of a committee to implement the approaches recommended i n the r e p o r t G i r l s , Schools and Society. (62) I t s recommendation
t h a t a f u l l - t i m e o f f i c e r work as a resource person and an i n i t i a t o r of a c t i o n such as a review o f classroom m a t e r i a l s has already been implemented.
P a r t i c u l a r concern was expressed t o the Committee about the t r a d i t i o n a l approach i n schools o f
regarding p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t s as s p e c i a l l y f o r g i r l s or f o r boys. (63)
A f t e r c o n s i d e r i n g the range o f evidence a v a i l a b l e to i t on t h i s s u b j e c t the Committee concluded t h a t , i n terms o f r e t e n t i o n i n secondary e d u c a t i o n , g i r l s do n o t form a disadvantaged group. However, i n terms of the types o f courses undertaken by g i r l s , t h e i r expectations about f u t u r e careers and the l i m i t e d range o f occupations open t o g i r l s a f t e r l e a v i n g school i t i s c l e a r t h a t they can be d e s c r i b e d as disadvantaged. (64) A c c o r d i n g l y , the Committee c a l l s on schools t o review t h e i r c u r r e n t programs and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s t o ensure t h a t these do n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e a g a i n s t g i r l s .
Conclusion
I n t h i s s e c t i o n o f the r e p o r t many i m p o r t a n t recommendations have been p u t forward about t a c k l i n g the disadvantages o f p a r t i c u l a r groups o f students but the Committee wishes t o r e i t e r a t e the importance of seeing many o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f the r e p o r t as
being r e l e v a n t t o t h i s q u e s t i o n . The Committee has s e t i t s face a g a i n s t the k i n d o f streaming or choice-making by students i n the compulsory years t h a t f o r e c l o s e o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o them at a l a t e r stage. I n the view o f the Poverty
I n q u i r y such p r a c t i c e s by a school s e t t l e i n d i v i d u a l d e s t i n i e s and make the school i t s e l f r e l a t i v e l y
powerless t o overcome the disadvantages o f p a r e n t a l and s o c i a l - c l a s s background. I n very l a r g e measure the whole problem o f disadvantage i s t h a t o f i n c r e a s - i n g t h e choices open t o students and o f m a i n t a i n i n g the w i l l i n g ' and f r u i t f u l p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f disadvan- taged students u n t i l they are able t o e x e r c i s e wise choices about t h e i r f u t u r e and u n t i l a wide range o f a l t e r n a t i v e s i s open t o them. The Committee has also p u t forward i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h i s r e p o r t important recommendations about P r i n c i p a l s and teachers and we see the q u a l i t y o f s t a f f - s t u d e n t
i n t e r a c t i o n as c r i t i c a l i n h e l p i n g c h i l d r e n a t r i s k . Increased p a r e n t a l and community involvement i n education and the development o f the p o s s i b i l i t y of r e c u r r e n t education are also h i g h l y r e l e v a n t
to a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f disadvantage. But we conclude t h i s d i s c u s s i o n by h i g h l i g h t i n g two aspects o f
c e n t r a l importance:
(.1) The whole c o n s i d e r a t i o n by the Poverty I n q u i r y o f poverty and education was focused on the v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f e a r l y s c h o o l - l e a v e r s . These are the students whose choices i n l i f e are most l i m i t e d and t h i s i s l i k e l y t o be i n c r e a s i n g l y the case i n our s o c i e t y .
E a r l y s c h o o l - l e a v e r s are drawn
p a r t i c u l a r l y from disadvantaged groups i n our s o c i e t y and the key aspect o f t a c k l i n g disadvantage i s t o remedy t h i s s i t u a t i o n . (65)
(2) E q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y cannot be
achieved by e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s alone.
A concerted and c o - o r d i n a t e d e f f o r t by many experts and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i s r e q u i r e d t o o f f s e t the h i t h e r t o
fragmented a p p l i c a t i o n o f resources and e f f o r t . Compensatory education alone j u s t does n o t work and t h e r e i s an urgent need f o r new s t r u c t u r e s t h a t w i l l b r i n g t o g e t h e r people and resources from d i f f e r e n t gov- ernment departments and v o l u n t a r y agencies.
2.4 THE TRANSITION FROM SCHOOLING TO WORK