Farm technical manual 1991

FARM

TECHNICAL MANUAL

" .,' '"

11 i 11 Farm Management Department

Lincoln University

FARM

TECHNICAL

MANUAL

EDITORS:

E.S. BURTI, M.Agr.Sc (Hons).

Farm Management Department, Lincoln University,

Canterbury , New Zealand.

1991

ISBN 0-86476-043-4

PREFACE

The Farm Technical Manual is a versatile reference book which brings into one place all manner of essential technical information required by farmers and others involved in the farming industry. The Manual has been designed with the practitioner in mind, providing data gleaned from many sources, but presented in non-technical language wherever possible.

Last produced in 1986, the Technical Manual was much in need of up-dating. This has been done and, at the same time, all sections have been extensively revised and improved, with some being completely re-written.

We would like to thank all individuals and organisations who have provided information for our use. Without their assistance, the production of this manual would not be feasible. We wish to express our special appreciation to Mr G.J.

Walton, B.Agr.Sc, for the major contribution he made in the preparation of the manuscript and technical tables.

Please note that each of the seven sections is paged individually, for example, page A-90 refers to the 90th page of the first section; B-40 refers to the 40th page of the second section.

While every effort has been made to ensure that the information in this publication is accurate, Lincoln University cannot accept responsibility for any errors or omissions or for any loss or damage resulting from the reliance on or the use of information contained in this Manual.

Trade names, by necessity, have been included on occasion through the Manual, but no preferential endorsement by the University is intended nor is criticism implied if a particular product or trade name does not appear.

Any suggestions for the improvement of the Manual would be welcomed.

For readers' information, the Farm Management Department also produces a companion volume - the "Financial Budget Manual", which is an essential budgeting aid for farmers and growers, and is produced in March of each year.

PH. Fleming, E.S. Burtt, Editors January 1991.

CONTENTS

SECTION

1 .

1.1 Livestoc~ Feed Requirements and Liveweight Charts 1.1.1

1.1.2

1.1.3 1.1.4

1.1.5

1.1.6

1.l.7 1.1.8

1.1.9 1.1.10

Introduction and ReferenceslFurther Reading ... A-3 Breeding Ewe Feed Requirements

- Weaned ewes (in summer) ... A-5 -Feeding ewes for tupping ... A-5 -Early to mid-winter ... A-6 -Late winter/pre-Iamb/start of lambing ... A-6 - After lamb drop ... A-7 - Ewes after shearing ... A-7 -Liveweight Chan ... A-8 Lamb/Hogget Feed Requirements (and Liveweight Targets) ... A-9

B~f Breeding Cow Feed Requirements

- Cows after weaning in late autumn ... A-lO -Early to mid winter ... A-ll -Late winter ... A -11 -After calf drop, and through the breeding season ... A-ll - Liveweight Chan ......... A-12 Beef Heifer/Steer/Bull - Feed Requirements ... A-13 -Beef Heifer Liveweight Chan ... A-l5 - Dairy Beef Liveweight Chan ... A-16 Dairy Cow Feed Requirements

- Dry cows in winter (and liveweight targets) ... A-17 -Cows in milk ... A-18 Dairy Heifer Feed Requirements ... A -18 -Liveweight Chanfor Dairy Heifers ... A-19 Red Deer Feed Requirements (and Liveweight Patterns)

- Hinds ... A-20 - Stags ... A-21 Goat Feed Requirements ... A-22 Pig Nutrition ... A-22 1.2 Physiology of Livestock

1.2.1 Breeding Date Tables ... A-26 1.2.2 Gestation PeriodlTerm of Pregnancy ... A-27 1.2.3 "Heat"/Oestrus Table ... A-27 1.2.4 Age of Puberty ... A -28 1.2.5 Determining Age of Livestock

- Sheep ... A-28 -Cattle ... A-28 -Horses ... A-29 1.2.6 Temperature, Pulse and Respiration of Stock ... A-29

Page 1.3 Animal Health and Diseases

1.3.1 Drench Resistance/Recommendations ... A-30 1.3.2 Mineral Deficiencies in Stock

-Risk Conditions ... A-32 -Deficiency Symptoms ... A-36 -Minerals:

-Selenium ... A-34 - Magnesium ... A-37 - Calcium ... A-37 -Copper ... A-38 - Cobalt ... A-39 - Sodium ... A-39 - Iodine ... A-39 -Mineral Content in Feed ... A-41 1.3.3 Some Common Diseases of Livestock

1.4 Sheep 1.4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4 1.4.5 1.4.6 1.4.7 1.4.8 1.4.9 1.4.10 1.4.11

-Brucellosis ... A-43 - Leptospirosis ... A-43 - "Ryegrass Staggers" ... A-43 - "Grass Staggers ... A-43 - "Facial Eczema ... A-44 - "Milk Fever ... A-44 - Johne's Disease ... A-45 -Hydatids ... A-45 - Footrot ... A-45 Diseases of Deer

- Malignant Catarrhal Fever ... A-46 -Yersiniosis ... A-46 - Tuberculosis ... A-46 - Clostridial Infections ... A-47 -Enzootic Ataxia ... A-47 - Lungwonn ... A-47 - Tissue Wonn ... A-48

Feed Requirements and Liveweight Charts of Sheep ... A-49 Breeding and Age Information of Sheep ... A-49 Sheep Health and Diseases ... A-49 Wool.. ... A-49 Sheep 'Stock Unit' Measures ... A-49 Sheep Perfonnance on New Zealand Fanns ... A-49 Lambing Percentage Calculations ... A-49 Lambs Born: Proportions of Singlesrrwinsrrriplets ... A-50 Death Rate or Mortality ... A-51 Rams ... A-51 Rotational Grazing/Mob Stocking ... A-51

1.5 Wool 1.5.1 1.5.2 1.5.3 1.5.4 1.5.5 1.5.6 1.5.7 1.5.8 1.5.9 1.5.10 1.5.11 1.5.12 1.5.13

Page Wool Production/Sheep Perfonnance on New Zealand Farms ... A-53 Shearing Times and Intervals ... A-53 Wool Grading ... A-55 Fineness (Micron) of Fleece ... A-56 Wool Colour ... A-58 Wool Length ... A-60 Clean Wool yield ... A-60 Wool Growth ... A-61 Wool Types/Weights for Budgeting Purposes ... A-62 Breed/FIeece Characteristics ... A-63 Further Wool Terms Explained ... A-64 Sampling and Testing ofWool.. ... A-66 Common Wool Brands ... A-69 1.6 Beef Cattle

1.6.1 Feed Requirements and Liveweight Charts of Beef Cattle ... A-70 1.6.2 Breeding and Age Information of Beef Cattle ... A-70 1.6.3 Beef Cattle Health and Diseases ... A-70 1.6.4 Beef Cattle 'Stock Unit' Measures ... A-70 1.6.5 Beef Cattle Perfonnance and Husbandry (see also Section 7.3.1)

- Calving Percentage ... A-70 _ Death Rate ... A-70 -Replacement Rate ... A-70 - Bulls ... A-71 1.6.6 Dressing out Percentages of Beef Cattle ... A-71 1.7 Dairy Cattle

1.7.1 Feed Requirements and Liveweight Charts of Dairy Cattle ... A-72 1.7.2 Breeding and Age Information of Dairy Cattle ... A-72 1.7.3 Dairy Cattle Health and Diseases ... A-72 1.7.4 Dairy Cattle 'Stock Unit' Measures ... A-72 1. 7.5 Dairy Cattle Perfonnance on New Zealand Farms ... A-72 1.7.6 Dairy Cow Condition Scoring ... A-72 1.7.7 Estimation of Dairy Heifer Bodyweights ... A-76 1.7.8 Calf Feeding (Cold Milk, Ad-lib) ... A-76 1.8 Deer

1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 1.8.4 1.8.5

Feed Requirements and Liveweight Charts of Red Deer ... A-78 Breeding and Physiological Infonnation of Red Deer ... A-78 Deer Health and Diseases ... A-78 Deer • Stock Unit' Measures ... A-78 Red Deer Growth and Development

-Early Development ... A-78 -Yearlings to Maturity ... A-78 - Productivity of Hinds ... A-78

1.8.6 1.8.7 1.9 Goats

1.9.1 1.9.2 1.9.3 1.9.4 1.9.5

1.10 Pigs 1.10.1 1.10.2 1.10.3 1.10.4 1.10.5 1.10.6 1.10.7 1.10.8

Page Venison Production ... A-79 Velvet Production ... A -80

Feed Requirements of Goats ... A-82 Breeding and Physiological Information of Goats ... A-82 Goat Health and' Diseases ... A-82 Goat 'Stock Unit' Measures ... A-82 Goat Fibre Production

- Mohair ... A-82 -Cashgora ...•... A-82 - Cashmere ... A-83

Nutrition of Pigs ... A-85 Breeding and Physiological Information of Pigs ... A-85 Pigs -Terms Explained ... A-85 Breeds and Breeding Policies ... A-87 Housing, Effluent and Water ... A-88 Factors Affecting Sow Output/Piglet Survival ... A-90 Sow Condition ... A-92 Grading of Carcass ... A-93 1.11 Nutritive Value of Stockfeeds

1.11.1 Nutritive Value of Pastures, Conserved Feeds, Fodder Crops, Concentrates and By-Products

- Pastures ... A-95 - Luceme ... A-95 -Silages ... A-95 -Hays ... A-96 -Straws ... A-96 - Crops ... A-96 -Greenfeeds ... A-97 - Concentrat.es ... A-97 1.11.2 Nutritive Value of Pig Feeds ... A-98 1.12 Stock Unit Conversions

1.12.1 Introduction ... A-l00 1.12.2 M.A.F. Stock Unit Figures ... A-l 00 1.12.3 Further Stock Unit Conversions (Common Usage) ... A-102

Page

SECTION 2 • PASTURE

2.1 Background Information on N.Z. Pastures

2.1.1 General ... B·3 2.1.2 The Role of Perennial Ryegrass ... B·3 2.1.3 Establishment of "New"/"Alternative" Grasses ... B·3 2.1.4 Establishment of "New" Clovers ... B-4 2.2 Grass Varieties· Characteristics and Establishment

2.2.1 Ryegrasses

2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8

- Perennial/Long Term Ryegrasses ... B-4 -Short Rotationfferm Ryegrasses ... B-4 - Endophyte Test for Ryegrasses ... B-5 Cocksfoot. ... B-6 Prairie Grass ("Matua") ... B-6 Tall Fescue ... B-7 Phalaris ("Maru") ... B-7 Timothy ("Kahu") ... B-8 Other Grasses Available for Pasture Improvement. ... B-8 Susceptibility of Grass Varieties to Argentine Stem Weevil ... B-8 2.3 Clover Varieties· Characteristics and Establishment

2.3.1 White Clover

- "Tahora" ... B-9 - "Pitau" ... B-9 - "Kopu" ... B-9 -"Huia" ... B-9 2.3.2 Red Clover

- "Pawera" ... B-9 -"Colenso" ... B-9

• "Hamua" and "Turoa" ... B-9 2.3.3 Subterranean Clovers ... B-I0 2.3.4 Other Clovers ... B-I0 2.4 Lucerne and Other Pasture Legumes

2.4.1 Lucerne Varieties and Characteristics ... B-1O 2.4.2 Other Pasture Legumes ... B-I0 2.S Herbs for Pastures

2.5.1 Chicory ("Puna") ... B-ll 2.5.2 "Sheeps Burnet" ... B-11 2.6 Pasture Types For Specific Environments

2.6.1 Pastures for North Island Steep Hill Country ... B-l1 2.6.2 Pastures for Summer Dry/East Coast/Cultivatable Land ... B-13 2.6.3 Pasture Species for South Island Hill and High Country ... B-14

Page

2.7 Weed, Pest and Disease Control of Pasture and Lucerne

2.7.1 Use of Chemicals - General ... B-16 2.7.2 Toxicity Levels of Chemicals ... B-16 2.7.3 Weed Control in Pastures ... B-17 2.7.4 Specific Scrub and Woody Weeds ... B-18 2.7.5 Insect Control in Pastures ... B-22 2.7.6 Disease Control in Pastures ... B-23 2.7.7 Weed Control in Lucerne ... B-24 2.7.8 Insect Control in Lucerne ... B-25 2.7.9 Control of Lucerne Diseases ... B-26 2.8 Forage ShrubslBrowse Species ... B-26 2.9 Estimating Pasture Dry Matter (D.M.) On Farms

2.9.1 Summary of Methods Used to Estimate Dry Matter ... B-27 2.9.2 Using Eye Assessment to Estimate Dry Matter ... B-27 2.9.3 Using "Pasture Probe" or "Rising Plate Meter" ... B-29 2.9.4 Using "Cut and Dry" Technique to Measure D.M ... B-29 2.9.5 Estimating D.M. from Pasture Cuts (without drying) ... B-31 2.9.6 Pasture Cutting Technique ... B-31 2.9.7 Estimating Hay and Silage Dry Matter ... B-31 2.10 Pasture Growth Rates For Feed Budgeting On Farms

2.10.1 2.10.2

2.10.3 2.10.4

2.10.5 2.10.6

Estimating Farm Pasture Production ... B-34 Pasture Growth Rates for N.Z. Regions/Districts

- Introduction ... B-35 - North Island Sites ... B-36 - South Island Sites ... B-37 Dairy Pasture Growth Rates ... B-38 Hill Country Pasture Growth Rates

- North Island Hill Country Pastures ... B-39 - South Island Hill & High Country Pastures ... B-4O - Semi-Developed Pastures ... B-41 - Impact of Sunny/Shady Aspects ... B-41 - Influence of Slope/Steepness ... B-42 -Influence of Environment ... B-42 Canterbury Dryland/Irrigated Pasture Production ... B-43 Grazing Management and Pasture Growth ... B-45 2.11 Pasture Mineral Deficiencies and Requirements

2.11.1 Essential Elements for Plant Growth ... B-47 2.11.2 Minerals: Plant Analysis and Standards ... B-47 - White Clover ... B-49 -Ryegrass ... B-50

Page - Cereals ... B-50 -Maize ... B-51 2.11.3 Mineral Deficiency Symptoms in White Clover ... B-51 2.11.4 Molybdenum Deficiency

- Molybdenum Deficient Soils ... B-52 - Topdressing With Molybdenum ... B-55 -Molybdenum Interaction With Lime ... B-56 2.12 Identification of Grasses and Clovers

2.12.1 Identification of Grasses ... B-57 2.12.2 Identification of Clovers ... B-61 2.13 Identiftcation of Weed Seeds in Pasture Seed Mixtures ... B-64 2.14 ReferenceslFurther Reading ... B-64

SECTION 3 • FORAGE AND CASH CROPS 3.1 Forage Crops

3.1.1 Infonnation Provided and Further References ... C-3 3.1.2 Forage Crop Husbandry ... C-3 3.1.3 Stock Health Problems on Forage Crops ... C-3 3.1.4 Specific Forage Crops: Additional Information and Cautions

- Brassicas ... C-4 -Cereals ... C-5 - Maize ... C-5 - Ryegrasses ... C-5 - Sorghum Hybrids ... C-6 - Other ... C-6 - Table o/Summer Forage Crops ... C-7 _ Table o/Winter Forage Crops ... C-8 3.1.5 Estimating Forage Crop Dry Matter ... C-9 3.1.6 Weed And Pest Control in Forage Brassicas ... C-9 3.2 Casb Crops

3.2.1 Recommended Varieties of Cash Crops

-Wheat/Barley/Oats/R yecorn ... C-12 - Maize/peas/Lentils/Lupins/Potatoes ... C-12 - Rape/Swedes{furnips/Kale ... C-13 - Lucerne ... C-13 -Grasses ... C-13 - CloverslLotus ... C-13 -Chicory ... C-13

3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.8 3.2.9 3.2.10 3.2.11 3.2.12 3.2.13

Page Sowing and Harvesting Data of Various Cash Cr0ps ... C-14 - Cereal Crop Growth Stages (Fe ekes Scale) ...... C-21 Weed Control in Cash Crops ... C-16 Insect Control in Cash Crops ... C-17 Disease Control in Cash Crops ... C-18 - Cereal Crop Growth Stages (Feekes Scale) ... C-21 Seed-Borne Diseases/Control in Cereals (including Maize) ... C-22 Airborne Diseases/Control in Cereal Crops (including Maize) ... C-23 Summary of Chemical Control of Airborne Diseases in Crops ... C-25 Soil-Borne Diseases (and Control) in Crops ... C-27 ReferenceslFurther Reading ... C-27 Chemical Use in Conservation Tillage ... C-27 Plant Analysis to Determine Mineral Deficiency in Crops ... C-27 Buying Seed: Identifying the Weed Seeds/lrnpurities from

Information Provided on the Seed Analysis Certificate ... C-28

SECTION 4 • FERTll..ISERS, LIME, SOll..S 4.1 Phosphatic Fertilisers

4.1.1 Major Phosphatic Fertilisers: Super, Longlife, R.P.R.

- Phosphorus Content and Availability ... D-3 - Selecting the Most Suitable Phosphatic Fertiliser ... D-3 - Further Information on R.P.R. and Longlife Fertilisers ... D-4 4.1.2 P.A.P.R. Fertilisers ... D-5 4.1.3 Measuring the "Plant Available" P in Superphosphate-based

Fertilisers (The Citric Solubility Test) ... D-5 4.2 Sulphur Fertilisers

4.2.1 Sulphur Content and Availability in Fertiliser Mixtures ... D-7 4.3 Timing of Fertiliser Applications

4.3.1 Timing of Phosphatic Fertilisers ... D-8 4.3.2 Tirrri .. ,g of Potassic Fertilisers ... D-8 4.3.3 Timing of Sulphur Fertilisers ... D-8 4.3.4 Timing of Fertiliser Mixtures ... D-lO 4.4 Fertiliser For Hay and Silage Paddocks

4.5 Lime 4.5.1 4.5.2

- Phosphorus/Potassium/Sulphur/Magnesium ... D-ll

Pasture Growth Responses to Lime ... D-II Lime Required to Raise Soil pH ... D-12

Page 4.6 Nitrogen Fertilisers

4.6.1 Nitrogen Fertiliser Usage on Pastures

- Growth Responses ... 0-13 -Managing Pastures When Using Nitrogen Fertiliser ... 0-13 -Impact of Weather Conditions ...•...•. 0-15 4.6.2 Types of Nitrogenous Fertilisers ... 0-16 - Calculating Topdressing Rates ... 0-17 4.7 SOU Tests

4.7.1 Soil Testing the Farm ... 0-17 4.7.2 Interpretation of Soil Test Results (M.A.F.) ... 0-18 4.8 Costing of Fertilisers/Comparing Alternatives ... 0. 18 4.9 Trace and Minor Elements

4.9.1 Trace ElementlMineral Deficiencies in Plants/Stock ... 0-21 4.9.2 Trace and Minor Element Fertiliser Materials ... 0-21 4.10 Soils (Features)

4.10.1 The Soils of New Zealand

- Zonal Soils ... 0-22 -Intrazonal Soils ... 0-22 -Azonal Soils ... 0-23 4.10.2 Soil Physical Conditions and Crop Production ... 0-23 4.11 Rererenc:esIFurther Reading ... 0-24

SECTION 5 • FARM IMPROVEMENTS, STRUCTURES AND VEHICLES '.1 Farm Forestry

S.1.1 Planning ... E-3 S.1.2 Site Factors -Clirnate/SoilNegetation ... E-3 S.1.3 Characteristics of Tree Varieties ... E-6 5.1.4 Land Preparation ... E-10 S.I.S Planting ... E-l 0 5.1.6 Releasing/Weed Control.. ... E-12 5.1.7 Woodlot Management ... E-13 5.1.8 Pruning ... E-IS S.1.9 Thinning ... E-IS S.1.1 0 Protection ... E-16 S.l.ll Disease ... E-16 S.1.12 Forestry/Woodlot References (Further Reading) ... E-17 S.I.13 Agroforestry: Stock Grazing Under Trees ... E-17

Page 5.1 Shelter Trees

5.2.1 Shelter Belts - Principles ... E-19 5.2.2 Rabbit Proofing Seedling Trees ... E-19 5.3 Fencing

5.3.1 Electric Fencing Guidelines

5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4

- Earthing or Grounding System ... E-20 - Wire Joints/Wireffension ... E-21 - Wire Spacings for Various Classes of Stock ... E-22 - Insulators ... E-2'2 -Rejuvenating Existing Non- Electrified Fences ... E-22 -Electrifying Remote Areas ... E-23 - Training Stock to Electric Fencing ... E-23 - Safety Requirements and Regulations ... E~23 -Fault Finding ... E-24 Electric Fencing For Goats ... E~24 Electric "Grass Fence" Design ... ~ ... ; ... E-26 Estimating Total Length of Fencing on Farms ... E-27 5.4 Water Supply

5.4.1 Farm Water RequirementslIntroduction ... E-28 5.4.2 Average Water Requirements for Farm Water Supply

- Stock Water Requirements ... E-28 -Domestic Consumption ... E-29 - Garden Consumption ... E-29 - Consumption on General Farming Activities ... E-29 - Long-Term Demands ... E-30 -Storage Provision of Tanks/Dams Filled by Pump/Gravity .E-30 -Pumping Rates for Filling Storages ... E-31 5.4.3 Peak Water Requirements for Farm Water Supply ... E-31 5.4.4 Working Lives for Farm Water Supply Equipment ... E"33 5.5 Irrigation

5.5.1 Irrigation Measurements ... E-34 5.5.2 Irrigation Scheduling/Requirements for Farms ... E-34 5.5.3 Application Efficiency of Irrigation ... E-37 5.5.4 Sprinkler Irrigators -Comparison ... E-39 5.5.S Trickle Irrigation ... E-40 5.6 Structures and Storage

5.6.1 Sheep Yards/Covered Yards ... ; .. E-42 5.6.2 Cattle yards ... E-43 5.6.3 Cattle Stops ... E-44 5.6.4 Deer yards ... E-45 5.6.5 Woolsheds ... : .... E-46 5.6.6 Haybarns/Stacking Hay ... E-48 5.6.7 Grain Storage Silos ... E-50

Page 5.7 Farm Vehicles

5.7.1 Fuel Consumption of Tractors ... , ... E-52 5.7.2 Tractor Hours and Work Rates of Cultivation Equipment ... E-52 5.7.3 Sprayer Use, Calibration and Cleaning ... ,; ... E,55 5',8 ReferenceslFurther Reading ... E-60

SECTION 6 • MEASUREMENTS ON FARM AND FOREST 6.1 The MetriclDecimal System

6.1.1 Metric Terminology ... F-3 6.1.2 The Decimal System ... , ... ' ... F-3 6.2 Quick Conversions Metric/Imperial Measurements ... F-3 6.3 Area/Square Measure

6.3.1 ImperiallMetric Conversions of Area Measurements ... F-4 6.3.2 Imperial Measurements of Area ... + ... , ... F-S 6.4 Topdressing/Sowing/Harvesting Measures

6.4.1 ImperiallMetric Conversions of Weight per Unit Area ... F-6 6.5 LengthlDistance Measures

6.5.1 ImperiallMetric Conversions of Length Measurements ... F-S 6.5.2 Imperial Measurements of Length ... ;, ... ; .. F-lO 6.6 Weight (Mass) Measures

6.6.1 ImperiallMetric Conversions of Weight Measurements ... F-11 6.6.2 Imperial Measurements of Weight.. ... F-13 6.7 Volume/Cubic Measure/Capacity

6.7.1 ImperiallMetric Conversions of Volume/Capacity ... F-14 6.7.2 Imperial Measurements of Volume (Cubic/Solid) ... 1~.,

...

6.S.1 ImperiallMetric Conversions of Volume/Area ... F-17 6.9 Flow Rate (Volume/Time) Measurements ... F-19 6.10 RainfalllIrrigation Measurements ... F-19 6.11 Power/EnergylElectricity Measures

6.11.1 Power/Energy Measures ... F-20 6.11.2 Electrical Terms and Measures ... F-20

P"p

6.12 Pressure Measurements ... F-22 6.13 Density Measures/Spraying Mixtures ...•... F-23 6.14 SpetdNelocity Measures ... F-24 6.15 Temperature - Fahrenbeit and Celcius Conversions ... F-24 6.16 Bushel Conversions

6.16.1 Bushels per Acre to Kilogramsffonnes Per Hectare ... F-2S 6.16.2 Bushel Weights of Crops/Seeds ... F-2S 6.17 Land Area and Distance on Hill Slopes

6.17.1 Detennining Actual Area and Distance on Hill Slopes ... F-26 6.18 Finance Measures

6.18.1 Cost of Servicing 'Table' Mortgages ... F-28 6.19 Forest Metrics

- Stems per Acre to Stems per Hectare ... F-29 - Tree Spacings: Imperial to Metric Conversions ... F-30 - Cubic Feet per Acre to Cubic Metres per Hectare ... F-31

SECTlON7 - NEW ZEALAND AGRICULTURE

7.1 Land Use in New Zealand

- North Island ...•..•. 0-3 - South Island ... 0-4 7.2 Types/Classes ofSbeep and BeefFanns in New Zealand ... O-S 7.3 Pbysical and ProductionlPerformance Data of N.Z. Pastoral Farms

7.3.1 Sheep and Beef Fann Data ... 0-6 7.3.2 Dairy Fann Data ... 0-8 7.4 Climatic Data

7.4.1 Rainfall- Monthly and Yearly Averages for N.Z. Districts ... O-lO 7.4.2 Evapotranspiration - Monthly /Yearly Data for N .Z. Districts ... O-11 7.4.3 Weather Forecasting/Weather Maps ... 0-12

INDEX

1.1 LIVESTOCK FEED REOUIREMENTS AND LIVEWEIGHT CHARTS (Compiled by P.H. Fleming, Farm Management Department.)

1.1.i Introduction

"Dry Matter":

For the sake of convenience, feed requirements have been expressed in terms of kilograms of Dry Matter (kg D.M. - see Note 1. below) rather than in Megajoules of Metabolisable Energy (MJME -see Note 2. below).

Converting the kg D.M. figures to MJME is simply done by mUltiplying by the ME content of the feed -refer to "Farm Conditions" below.

Note 1: "Dry Matter" is a standardised measure offeed quantity: it is the weight of feed after all the moisture has been extracted from it. The Dry Matter contents of various feeds can be seen in Section 1.11.1; for example dry stalky ryegrass pasture has a D.M. content of28% ,or, put another way, it has a moisture content of 72%.

Note 2: "Metabolisable Energy" is a good measure of the nutritive value offeed- M.E. is the proportion offeed energy absorbed from the digestive tract and retained for metabolic purposesl . AI/feeds can be ranked on their metabolisable energy content as a proponion offeed dry matter (MID value, expressed as MiME/kg D.M.) to indicate their value to ruminants. The MID value of a feed may be called the "ME.

Concentration" of that feed; refer to Section 1.11.1. For example, dry stalky ryegrass pasture has a M.E. concentration of 8.0.

Farm Conditions:

Throughout Section 1.1, the assumption is made that stock are grazed on mixed length. leafy. ryegrass/white clover pasture, which has a Metabolisable Energy Conc.entration of approximately 11.0 MJME per kg D.M. Hence, if the requirement for an animal is shown as say, 1.0 kg D.M. per day, this figure can be converted into MIME by multiplying by 11.0. That is, the animal requires 11.0 MJME per day. If stock are to be fed on higher quality feed, such as short, leafy, spring pasture with a M.E. concentration of 11.8 (see Section 1.11.1), they will require less feed than that shown (11.0 + 11.8 x 100

=

concentration of 10.0, they will require more feed than shown (11.0 + 10.0 x 100 = 110 %; that is 10 % more D.M. required).

The assumption is also made that in estimating normal energy requirements for grazing, walking etc., stock are grazed on 'good' hill country. Feed requirements will be more than those shown, if the stock are run in difficult or very difficult conditions (e.g. on harder hill country, or if pasture is sparse and water is some distance away, or if climatic conditions are harsh). In these conditions, 10% to 20% more feed may be required.

A·3

For stock being run in very favourable conditions, 10% to 15% less feed may be required e.g. on flat land, and/or where pasture is pl.:mtiful and stock can obtain their feed: requirements with only a few hours grazing per day. Note that it is assumed that dairy cattle are only run on easier terrain; no adjustment is required in their case.

References:

Information from a number of sources has been adapted and condensed to create this section on "Livestock Feed Requirements". It has been designed for use by farmers and other practitioners. Further and more detailed information can be found in a number of useful texts, including:

1. "Livestock Feeding on Pasture", N.Z.S.A.P. (1987), Occasional Publication No. lO. '"

2. "Supplementary Feeding" N.Z.S.A.P. (1980), Occasional Publication No.7:

3. "Milk Production from Pasture" Holmes and Wilson (1984).*

4. Various M.A.F. "Aglinks" on stock nutrition.

5. Pork Industry Board 'Pigfax' publications.

6. "Sheep and Cattle Nutrition" M.A.F. Agricultural Research Division (1979).

7. "Feed Budgeting" M.A.F. Advisory Services Division (1976).

'" Available from Lincoln University Bookshop.

A·4

1.1.2 Breeding Ewe (and lamb) Feed Requirements and Liveweight Chart (See also Section 1.1.1)

(1) Weaned Ewes in Summer:

a) MaintelUlnce

*

Ewe liveweight 45 kg 55 kg 65 kg

Dry Matter Requirements

0.80 to 0.85 kg DM per head/day 0.90 to 1.00 kg DM

1.05 to 1.15 kg DM

*

b) Feed Requirements to Increase Liveweight Initial

I

Liveweight 50g

I

I

45 kg 11.10 kgDM/day 11.35 kgDM/day 1 1.65 kgDM/day 55 kg 1 . 2 5 " 1 . 5 5 " 1.90"

65 kg 1 . 3 0 " 1 . 6 5 " 2.10

**

In general, mature ewes require an extra (over maintenance) 5.5 to 7.3 kg of dry matter to put on 1 kg of liveweight. If however ewes have been losing weight, and are then put onto good feed, they will initially require only 2.7 to 3.6 kg of DM to put on 1 kg of liveweight, because of the high water content in regained tissue.

c) Liveweight Loss

In a liveweight loss situation, feed requirements would be reduced by 0.15 kg DM for each 100 grams of weight lost per day.

(2) Feeding Ewes for Tupping:

Tables 1 (a) and (b) above provide the basic information required. Some sources advocate feeding ewes at up to 1.5 times their normal maintenance ration during 'flushing'. Based on this, ewes would require approximately: (see over page)

A·5

Initial Ewe Liveweight 45 kg 55 kg

Kg D.M./headlday 1./.0 to 1.28 1.35 to 1.73

(3) Early to Mid Winter (2 to 3 months before lambing):

Ewe Liveweight

3 Months Before Lambing

2 Months Before Lambing 4Skg

55 kg 65 kg

0.85-0.90 kgDM/day 0.90-0.95 kgDM/day 0.95-1.05 " 1.00-1.10 "

1.10-1.20 1.15-1.25

(4) Late WinterIPre·Lamb/Start of Lambing:

Ewe 1 Month Before 2 Weeks Before Onset of

Liveweight Lambing Lambing Lambing

45 kg 1.05· 1.10 kgDM/day 1.15 - 1.20 kgDM 1.30· 1.35 kgDM 55 kg 1.15· 1.25 " 1.25 -1.35 " 1.40· 1.50 "

65 kg 1.30 - 1.40 1.40 - 1.50 " 1.55· 1.65 "

Twin-bearing ewes require more feed than those carrying singles, particularly in the fmal weeks before lambing, i.e. up to 20 to 25% more feed than shown above.

However ewes at the end of pregnancy are seldom able to eat sufficient feed to meet their total requirements, especially if they are carrying twins or are overfat.

(It follows then, that the feed provided should be of high quality.)

Some sources simply recommend that ewes in the last month of pregnancy, should be fed at up to 1.5 times their normal maintenance ration, as for flushing - see (2) on page A-S.

See over page for jurther tables.

A·6

(5) Feed Requirements After Lamb Drop:

Figures are kg D.M. per head per day

Weeks After lamb Drop

First Third Sixth Ninth

Ewe Uvewe1ght Week Week Week Week

45 kg -with single lamb 1.60-1.90 1.90-2.20 1.80-2.20 1.60-1.90 55 kg -with single lamb 1.80-2.25 2.30-2.60 2.00-2.40 1.80-2.10 -with twins 2.35-2.65 2.70-3.00 2.50-3.00 1.95-2.25 65 kg -with single lamb 1.90-2.45 2.50-2.80 2.20-2.50 1.90-2.20 -with twins 2.50-2.80 2.90-3.20 2.70-3.20 2.05-2.35

Plus grass eaten by lamb

-

or (lambs) (0.35) (0.80) (1.45)

,--.-~--- . . ..

Some sources simply recommend feeding lactating ewes at up to 3 times their 'normal' maintenance ration.

(6) Feeding Ewes After Shearing:

Feed requirements after shearing are said to increase by approximately 10 to 20%

in the summer and 50 to 70% in the winter, for a period of 1 to 3 weeks, depending on the feed supply and weather conditions. Based on this, adult sheep would require approximately:

Sheep Liveweight 45 kg 55 kg 65 kg

Feed Requirements After Shearing in:

Summer Winter

0.90-1.00 kgD.M./day 1.20-1.45 kgD.M./day 1.00-1.20 .. 1.35-1.70 ..

1.15-1.40 1.55-1.95

A-7

>

Qc

(7) Ewe Liveweigbt Chart and Management

Chart produced by M.A.F. Information (Canterbury). Full scale wall charts are available from M.A.F. Agricultural Consultants, or from the Lincoln University Bookshop.

70

65

60

SUMMER

• "' .. "'''''''allrealJne<llol •• potI lambs 101 l-"Ir dospnlll . T .... ~¥II~oISUlpIo.Il'""lO

r,..oId<IPboOyweoglll

• P'~;u.p.nM"lorlluo/lo'lg

Torgot 60 kg

: ^;

I, . , .edOW.IIl>II ... I

'*"".. ^I'

...

I

I ^~ .... ^102_5%

."".1MIbII1Iom I i·:=~="

..

I·~""

,

. I

MATING

• eonw-lI9l!...:IIng _ . lor ~BI

"'"

• lIbor!Ii"'_ .... goodc.ondollOnlol

---

.~_fOUIlIDn.t_at

---

RAMS JOINED

I I

RAMS

I

OllT

WINTER

.FlMlricfto. .... .gIIIS ... M . . " . _

• ::.::.,:::: ,0IaI00tI101IuoIcI up

• F_ouppIemeonIl-'YWlwW.,

PRE LAMB

15pMoluptOlaloOn .A'oOd~

~1Ir"'*'9"

• 1denIit)'-'Y

-

.S.aIOdI7d11ya

.... -

LAMBING

POST LAMBING '~"""'0N'1CIIy.1I«t_

• fQl' ... oI.IaIIIb·IIft ... orogIJ cIIpMIdIcn .... ...

• "'rnidl8dPondrop<IUI~tor . . or"",~ • ...p..sClCOCloft

POST WEANING '"Ieed ... Ihoft~_an .. ,ty .Wu .. laITIbs_cro. .. ~

'*' ... -lI'u.19'III)'

• SoI901"'y~ .. oonfor 1!usIwl9811d..".".

WEANING

70

65

60

l55

E

i 350

i"",----..

.... -1 - -

_T?,~kg ----I....

^I I

I i

(?P 6

1

]55 ⁱ

l~ _J---sJ

-- T----

i I I 45

40

WEIGH

,--"

iouI"""'OIW"9I'"

- . . ,

....

_weogIII_O'tW

~

....

I' _ - - - ~

t----

WE!GH

I

. I

I

Feed remaining - kg dry matter (OM) I ha

i 300 I I 1000

o

MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST

1.1.3 Lamb/Hogl!et Feed Requirements (See also Section 1.1.1)

Feed requirements depend mainly on three factors; liveweight, rate of liveweight gain, and the sex of the animal.

Tables 1 and 2 below show estimated feed requirements for ram/wether lambs, and ewe lambslhoggets:

Table 1: Feed Requirements of Ram and Wether Lambs:

Figures are kg DM. per head per day

Initial Growth Rate/Liveweight Gain- (grams Qer da:i):

Liveweight Nil Gain 100 9 150g 200g 300g

20 kg 0.55-0.60 kgDM 0.85 kgDM 1.00 kgDM 1.15 kgDM 1.40 kgDM 30 kg 0.75-0.80 kgDM 1.20 kgDM 1.35 kgDM 1.55 kgDM 1.90 kgDM 40 ka 0.95-1.00 kgDM 1.45 kaDM 1.70 kaDM 1.90 koDM 2.35 koOM

*

Note (1):20 kg weaned male lambs (Nov. / Dec.) would need to grow at about 110 to 130 grams per day through summer/autumn to achieve a 13.5 kg carcase (30- 32 kg liveweight) by mid-March, or a 15.0 kg carcase (33 to 35 kg liveweight) by mid-April.

In general, male lambs (20 kg) require an extra (over maintenance) 3 kg of dry matter to put on 1 kg of liveweight. Heavier male hoggets (40 kg) require an extra 4.5 kg of dry matter to put on 1 kg.

Table 2: Feed Requirements of Ewe Lambs I [Joggets:

Figures are kg DM. per head per day

Initial Growth Rate/Liveweight Gain-- (grams Qer da:i):

Liveweight Nil Gain 50g 100 9 150g 200g

20 kg 0.60 kgDM 0.75 kgOM 0.90 kgDM 1.15kgDM 1.30 kgOM 30 kg 0.80 kgDM 1.05 kgDM 1.25 kgDM 1.55 kgDM 1.75 kgDM 40ka 1.00 kgDM 1.25 koDM 1.60 koDM 1.90 kgDM 2.25 kgDM

**

A·9

Note (2): 18 to 20 kg weaned ewe lambs (Nov. / Dec.) would need to grow at about 100 to 120 gr;lms per day through summer/autumn to achieve 35 kg liveweight by mid-May; at least 40 grams per day through winter to achieve 40 kg by mid-September; and about 110 to 130 grams per day through spring/early summer to achieve 52 kg by mid January (as 2th).

In general, c\ve lambs (20 to 25 kg) require an extra (over maintenance) 4 kg of dry mat!er to put on 1 kg of liveweight. Heavier ewe hoggets (45 kg) require an extra 6.5 kg of dry mailer to put !)n 1 kg (similar to mature ewes).

See page A-7 for feed requirements after shearing.

1.1.4 BeeCBreeding Cow (and CalQ "'eed Requirements and LiveweightChart (See also Section 1.1.1)

(l) Cows after weaning, in late autumn:

a) Maintenance Requirements: (mature cows) Cow Liveweiflht

350 kg 450 kg 550 kg

R ·

*

Dry Matter eqUirements 4.0-4.5 kg D.M. per head/day 4.8-5.3 kg

5.5-6.0 kg

*

b) Liveweight Loss:

In a liveweight loss situation, feed requirements would be reduced by approximately 2.5 kg DM for each kilogram of weight lost.

c) Liveweight Gain:

Liveweight Gain -In general, mature cows of medium breed size require an extra (over maintenance and maternal requirements) 6.5 kg of Dry Matter to put on 1 kg of liveweight. Smaller breeds may require more feed, and larger breeds less feed, to achieve the same increase in liveweight. See Section 1.1.5.

A·10

(2) Early to Mid-Winter (Maintenance Requirements):

Initial Cow 3 Months 2 Months

Liveweight Before Calving Before Calving 350 kg up to 4.7 kgDM/day 4.8-5.2 kgDM/day 450 kg up to 5.5 kgDM/day 5.7-6.2 kgDM/day 550 kg up to 6.3 kgDM/day up to 6.8 kgDM./day

(3) Late Winter (pre-calving/start of calving):

Cow Liveweight

350 kg 450 kg 550 kg

Final Month Before Calving 5.9 - 6.2 kgDM/day 6.4 -7.0 kgDM/day 7.5 - 7.8 kgDM/day

On,el of Calving

Insufficient information available.

Some SOllrcc~; rt: ... UH1in~~ntl ~,ilnilJr

feeding levels lC il,use required during lactation see (4) below.

(4) Feed Requirements after Calf Drop, and through the Breeding Season: Assuming no weight gain or loss. See 1 (c), page A-JO,for livev.'eight gain,

Figures are kg D.M. per head per day

Cow First Month Third Month

I

350 kg 6.7-6.9 kg at least 7.3 kg

i

400 kg about 7.5 kg^b at least 7.7 kgc 7.4 kg' 450 kg 7.7-7.9 kg at least 8.3 kgc ₁8.0 kge 500 kg 8.2-8.4 kg at least 8.7 kg^d 8.4 kge (Plus grass

eaten by calf) Nil

I

b. Some sources up to 9.0 kg c. Some sources up to 105 kg d. Some sources up to 11,0 kg e. Some sources up to 12.0 kg

A-ll

>

~ N

(5) Beef Breeding Cow (Mature) Liveweight Cbart and Management See also page A-I5, "Liveweight Targets/or Heifers."

Chart produced by the N.Z. Beef Council. E1Uluires about full scale wall charts should be addressed to Mr P. Packard, NZ. Bee/Council, C/- MA.F., Private Bag, Auckland.

The chart shows liveweight targets for mature beef breeding cows. Liveweights and feed requirements will differ according to the type of farm and breed of cattle. The pasture grazing levels apply regardless of cow size. PRE and POST GRAZING pasture levels indicated are for rotational grazing systems. Set stocking is indicated by SS.

L 500 I V E

~ ⁴⁵⁰ I G H T kg

-1, - i 420 kg • . . . - ; : - - - --- 400 kg

.

~~~-n ^-10$8 .. " ' .. 10 10% In

J

IliY8""~lIghl _

L-______________ -J'IWUNINOI

High h'eding lev8110 build C!M body rnorves and m8~,mise calf growth I.'n.nd ,mproveCOllCepc,on r~I1"

460 kg

1.1.5 Beef· Heifer/Steer/Bull • Feed Requirements and Liveweight Charts (See also Section 1.1.1)

Feed requirements depend mainly on four factors - liveweight, breed size, rate of liveweight gain and sex of the animal.

Table 3 below shows estimated feed requirements for Steers, of Medium Breed Size.

Note:- for Heifers add 5% to these figures.

-for Bulls deduct 5 %.

- for Small Breeds, add 5% to 10%.

- for Large Breeds, deduct 4% to 8%.

Table 3: Daily Feed Requirements· of Young/Growing Beef Cattle Figures are in kg D.M. per head per day.

Initial Growth Rate/Liveweight Gain

**

Liveweight 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5

o

2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.7 4.1 4.6

2.5 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.3 5.9

3.0 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.8 6.5 7.2

3.5 4.3 5.1 5.9 6.7 7.6 8.5

4.0 4.9 5.8 6.7 7.7 8.7 9.7

4.4 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.6 9.7 10.8

4.8 6.0 7.1 8.3 9.5 10.7 11.9

5.3 6.5 7.8 9.1 10.4 11.7 13.0

g 5.7 7.0 8.4 9.8 11.2 12.6 14.0

... Daily Feed Requirements: In reality these requirements may differ by 10% to 20 % depending on the climate. contour of farm. and ease of grazing (Section 1.1.1) . ... Growth RatelLiveweight Gain: Notes 1. and 2. (be/ow and over page). are included to assist readers to estimate likely growth figures for different classes of young stock. Liveweight charts are also shown in Figures 1 and2.pages A-15 and A- 16.

N otel: For beef weaners of medium breed size, growth rate targets (see over page) would be similar for both steers and heifers in the following situations:

- taking steers through to about 340 kg liveweight (180 kg c.w.) by 18 to 20 months.

- taking heifers through to about 250 kg liveweight for mating as yearlings, and through to about 350 to 370 kg liveweight by early winter.

A·13

Growth Rate Targets:

Starting in autumn, the 160 to 180 kg weaned calves would need to grow at about 0.25 to 0.4 kg per day through autumn/winter to achieve 200 kg liveweight by early August; about 0.6 to 1.0 kg per day through spring/early summer to achieve at least 250 kg by early November; and about 0.5 to 0.6 kg per day through summer/autumn to achieve the 350 to 370 kg liveweight target by early winter (see also Beef CalflWeaner Growth Rates, below).

Note 2: For 'Dairy Beef' weaner bull calves:

Calves weighing about 90 to lookg (at 3 to 4 months) would need to grow at about 0.5 to 0.9 kg per day through summer/autumn to achieve 240 to 250 kg liveweight by June; 0.4 to 0.5 kg per day through winter to achieve 280 to 300 kg by the end of August; 1.0 to 1.5 kg per day through spring to achieve 400 kg (210 kg c.w.) by the end of November, and 0.5 to 0.7 kg per day through summer/autumn to achieve 450 kg (235 kg c.w.) by end February or 500 kg (260 kg c.w.) by end May.

Beef CalfIWeaner Growth Rates:

(Source: Animal Science Department. 1986.)

Growth rate is affected by the quality and quantity of feed available and by the breed or cross of the animal. Weight gains can vary greatly depending on the system of production, but calves single suckling beef cows generally gain from 0.5 to 1.0 kg/day.

The average figures for cattle post-weaning are: (kg L.W. gain per day) Autumn

0.5

Winter 0.0 -0.6

Spring 1.0 - 1.2

A·14

Summer 0.6 - 0.8

>

til

Figure 1: Beef Heifer Liveweigbt Chart and Management

See also page A-12, "Liveweighl Targets/or Mature Breeding Cows".

Chart produced by the N.Z. Beef Council. E"'luires about full scale wall charts should be addressed to Mr P. Packard, NZ. Bee/Council, C/- MAF., Private Bag, Auckland.

The chart shows liveweight targets for the successful mating and rebreeding of yearling beef heifers (medium breed size).

Liveweights and feed requirements will differ according to the type of farm and breed of cattle. The pasture grazing levels apply regardless of heifer size. PRE and POST GRAZING pasture levels indicated are for rotational grazing systems. Set stocking is indicated bv SS .

• 5O

'"

S 250 kg 225

200 165 kg 175~

I'OC'''H mlh'$p,,~ 10'." .. . ....... ]

[H,gl1l_,S '" I'~ .n •• CalvlJlg II"~ until mating

~ ~ CI\

Figure 2: Dairy Beef Liveweight Chart and Management (Source: N.Z. Beef Council. See page A -15 for details).

DAILY FEED REQUIREMENTS lit 0 ..

_11-_

3.7

• STEERS Will GROW 10% FASTER THAN HEIFERS,

• BUllS WILL GRON 20% FASTER THAN HEIFERS.

• SET TARGET lIVEWEfGHTS. SEASONAL VAAl AllONS MEAN THPJ INDIVIDUAl FARM TARGETS NEED 10 SE DETERMINED.

5.7

Daily fiveweighl gains need 10 be high to achieve 400 kg (lIVe) _bvearly Oe.emb,,,.

In drought prone areas .. " " , , _ a t 'finishing' shoutd be achieYecl before teed

--

·lIIeIghanl ... _ ataughter.

Bylifllng_h1s, carcasses may reach carcass weight ranges -Imp ...

per kg.

Pre and Po$ grazing levels indicaled are fOl rotational grazing systems.

Set SSOC::king indicated. I§§]

If pastUl'9leng1hs post grazing are bekwt those recommended-lower Q«M1h rates can be expected

9.0

----+---

1.1.6 Dairy Cow Feed Requirements

(Note: Assuming good quality pasture and easy fann contour - see also Section 1.1.1) (1) Feed Requirements for Dry Cows in Winter:

a) Dry Cows in Adequate Condition (no increase in condition score required):

figures are kg D.M. per ~ead per day Months Before Calving·

Initial Cow 3 Months Llveweight^Z Before (Jersey) 350 kg 3.5 -4.OX , (FrIesian) 450 kg_ 4.5 -5.oY

L ..

x: some sources up to 5 kg D.M.lday y: some sources up to 6 kg D.M.lday

2 Months Final

Before Month

at least 4.0 5.5 -6.0 at least 5.0 7.0 - 8.0

z: Cow liveweight,- the feeding levels shown provide for normal increases in liveweight due to pregnancy - see target weights below:

Target liveweights for dairy cows immediately before calving are as follows: (Source: T.P. Hughes, Animal Science Department, 1986)

Age of Cow Jersey Friesian

2 yrs 320 kg L.W. 410 kg L.W.

3 yrs 380 kg 460 kg

4+ 420 kg 540 kg

Herd average 385 kg 470 kg

Note: Target liveweightsfor heifers (from weaning) can be seen on page A-19.

b) Dry Cows in Poor Condition:

For cow condition score to improve by 1 (say, from C.S. 4 to 5 -see Section 1.7), "true" body-weight must increase by 25 to 35 kg (over and above the increases associated with pregnancy).

In the average situation, 60 to 70 days of increased feeding (approximately 2.5 to 3.0 kg D.M. extra per day) would be required to put on this weight.

Maximum possible gain in cow "condition" in early winter is about 1.0 kg liveweight per day; and in late pregnancy is about 0.5 kg liveweightlday. From this it can be seen that the best time to improve cow condition is in autumn/early winter.

In general, for mature cows, an extra 6.0 to 6.5 kg of pasture dry matter is required for every 1.0 kg gain in liveweight.

A-I7

(2) Feed Requirements for Cows in Milk:

a) Feed Requirements according to Level of Prodllction:

figures are kg D.M. per head per day

Level of Milkfat Production per Day:

1.0 kgM.F. 0.8kgM.F. 0.6 kg M.F. OAkgM.F.

Cow (about 18-25 (about 15-20 (about 11-15 (about 7-10 Liveweight litres milk) Ii tres milk) Ii tres milk) litres milk)

g g g g guM

*

b) Liveweight Gain or Loss (During the Milking Season):

(See also

*

An additional 2.5 to 3.0 kg D.M./day would be required to gain 1 condition score (about 30 kg Jiveweight) over a period of 60 to 70 days. This represents a very high level of feeding.

Younger cows, in the process of "growing out" to their mature body-size, will require additional feeding though the season to account for the increase in liveweight. Also it takes more feed to increase the condition score of heifers than it does in older cows.

1.1.7 Dairy Heifer Feed Requirements and Liveweight Chart

Note: Assumes good quality pasture and easy farm contour - see also Section 1.1.1.

To reach the Iiveweight targets as shown in Figure 3, page A-19, the approximate feed requirements for heifer calves/yearlings are as follows:

**

kgD_M_ per head per day

Time of year Jersey Friesian

First summer/autumn (5-8 mths old) 2.5-3.5 3.0-4.0

Winter/early spring 3.0-4.0 4.0-5.0

Late spring/summer (15-17 mths old) 4.0-5.0 5.0-6.0

Second autumn/winter 4.5-6.0 6.0-7.0

**

A·IS

;I>-

,...

'l:>

Figure 3: Liveweighl Chart for Dairy Heifers (Source: N.Z. Dairy Board) The target liveweights shown are recommended minimums.

liveweight (kg) 450

400

350

Friesian Jersey

calving

,

410

./

/ / /

mating -... :-"(

I / . /' I 320

, - ,7\" )

300

250

200

150

100

50

o I o

".-

/71'

/ I

28~.-'- I

/ -

. /

-,{

. . / . I

weaning . /

, - .... :-..-r'"

.... ' I

,,' -

~/' ,/,./50

1 A

2 S

3

o N o M A

10 11 M J

12 J

13 14 15 16 17

A S O N 0

Months

18 19 J

ZO 21 M A

22 23 24 25 26

M A S

27 28

o N

1.1.8 Red Deer Feed Requirements (See also Section 1.1.1)

In/omultion derived/rom "Livestock Feeding on Pasture", NZSAP (1987), Occasional Publication No. 10.

(1) Feed requirements for Red Deer hinds, following a liveweight pattern similar to that shown in Figure 4.

kg

0/

~ 1 to 12 months 13 to 24 months 25 months and older

Summer suckling 1.9 4.1-4.3 (lactating)

Autumn 1.4 1.9 2.1

Figure 4: Liveweight Pattern of Hinds (Red Deer):

(Source: M.A.F.)

Winter 1.6 2.1 2.0-2.2

Spring 2.0 2.1 (in calf) 2.2 (in calf)

Liveweight (kg)

I

"', ( ~ V .

80

t ^Calf

60

Born

40

20

olr---+---~---+_---~

o ² 3 4

Age (years)

A-20

(2) Feed Requirements for Red Deer stags, following a liveweight pattern similar to that shown in Figure 5.

kg oj D.M. per head per day:

~ 1 to 12 months 13 to 24 months 25 to 36 months 37 months and older

Summer suckling 2.4 2.7 3.4-3.5

A.!lliuml

1.5 2.2 2.1 1.7

Figure 5: Liveweight Pattern of Stags (Red Deer):

(Source: M.A.F.)

Winter 1.9 2.5 3.0 3.0-3.3

Spring 2.5 2.8 3.4 3.5-4.0

Liveweight (kg)

200.---~--~---_.

150

100

50

WeaninQ

0+1---r---~----_,----_,---._--~

o

Age (years)

A-21

1.1.9 Goat Feed Requirements (See also Section 1.1.1)

Limited information is available on the pastoral feed requirements of goats. The following estimates are derived from information contained in "Livestock Feeding on Pasture", NZSAP (1987), Occasional Publication No. 10.

(1) Maintenance

*

Goat Liveweight: 20 kg 30 kg 40 kg 50 kg 60 kg Feed Requirements:

(kg D.M./head/day)

0.50 0.67 0.84 1.00 1.15

*

(2) Feed Requirements to Increase Liveweight:

In general, goats require an extra 2.5 to 3.0 kg of dry matter (over maintenance) to put on 1 kg of live weight.

(3) Doe Requirements in Late Pregnancy:

In general, does require an extra 0.5 to 0.6 kg of dry matter per day, (over maintenance) in the final two months pregnancy.

(4) Feed Requirements for Lactation:

In early lactation, does require an additional 0.7 to 1.4 kg of dry matter per day (over maintenance), depending on milk volume produced. In late lactation, additional feed requirements reduce to 0.2 to 0.5 kg D.M./day.

1.1.10 Pig Nutrition

Note 1: See also Section 1.11.2. Nutritive Value of Pig Feeds.

Note 2: Parts o/Section 1.1.1 (Introduction) do not apply to this section.

Maize and barley provide the major source of energy in pig rations in New Zealand.

These and other cereals, while being concentrated sources of digestible energy (DE), are inadequate in terms of protein quantity and quality for both the young growing pig and the adult sow in late pregnancy and lactation. Protein quality is assessed in terms of the amounts of specific amino acids (the constituents of protein) that a particular food provides relative to that required by the pig. Proteins are made up of different combinations of individual amino acids linked together in chains. The greatest

A·22

requirement for amino acids in the animal is for deposition of lean meat and milk production. The supply of individual amino acids from the gut is unlikely to correspond to that required by the pig. In such circumstances the liver of the pig has the ability to synthesize some of the required amino acids from others supplied to excess in the diet.

However there are about 11 amino acids (termed essential amino acids) which must be provided as they can not be readily synthesized by the pigs liver. A commonly accepted list of essential amino acids would be:

lysine, methionine, cystine, threonine, phenylalanine, histidine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, valine and arginine.

The way in which the protein is presented in the diet is important as large coarse feed particles may prevent complete digestion. Heating of protein decreases the proportion which can be absorbed from the gut, usually by about 5 percent. However, excessive heating may completely alter the structure of the dietary protein (denature) making it largely unavailable to the animal. Offal products from the freezing industry in New Zealand may sometimes be affected by excess processing with a subsequent drop in protein feed value.

Many of the essential vitamins and minerals are also in short supply, but these are usually adequately supplied by the inclusion of a mineral/vitamin proprietary mixture.

Three exceptions are:

1. Calcium and Phosphorus - usually added in various combinations of ground limestone, steamed bone flour, dicalcium phosphate and rock phosphate.

2. Sodium and Chlorine - added in the form of common salt (0.25% of air dry diet).

3. There is field evidence that sows may benefit in certain situations from additional supplies of the vitamins A, D and E during gestation.

The above text was revised (1986) with the assistance ofT.? Hughes, Animal and Veterinary Sciences Department.

A-23

TABLE 4: Recommended Feedin2 Level!. for Breedin2 Stock (Source: N.Z. Pork Board)

Daily Daily Crude Daily Allowance Daily Allowance

Digestible Protein of Balanced of Balanced

Energy Intake Intake Barley-based Maize-based Ration

*

**

Puberty

(210 days naturally or 160 days induced with

mating 19 to 39 days later) 31 MJ 120-190 g 2.7 kg 2.6 kg

Prior to mating

(last 2 weeks) 45 MJ 120-190 g 3.5 kg 3.0 kg

>

N (sow 150 kg Iiveweight) 25M] 250g 2.0 kg 1.7 kg

""

Lactation (sow 120 -200 kg

Iiveweight: 75M] 750g 6.0 kg 5.3 kg

1.5 kg meal/day for sow + 0.5 kg meal/day for each piglet suckled)

Weaning to Mating Interval 43MJ 250g 3.5 kg 3.0 kg

Boars 35MJ 250g 2.7 kg 2.5 kg

*

**

Source - Pigtech:

Class of Stock Sows Boars Suckers Weaners Porkers Baconers

Diet Fed Breeder Breeder Creep Creep and weaner

Grower Grower and finisher

Feeding Levels (see next table/or Nutrient Requirements)

Class of Stock Liveweight (kg) Diet Amount fed/day (kg)

Pregnant sow Breeder 2.0 - 2.3

Lactating sow Breeder 4.5 - 6.0

Boar Breeder 2.5 - 2.8

Weaner 8 Creep 0.3 - 0.4

Weaner 15 Weaner 0.6 -0.8

Weaner 20 Weaner 1.0 - 1.2

Grower 30 Grower 1.4 - 1.6

Grower 55 Grower 2.0 -2.2

Grower 80 Grower 2.5 -2.7

-_ .. _ - --- - - - - - - -

Nutrient Requirement of Pigs

Class of Stock Creep Weaner Grower Breeder

Livewelght range (kg) 3 - 10 10 - 25 25 - 85

Energy (MJ /kg)· 13.8 13.0 12.7 12.5

Protein (%) 20 -22 18 - 20 15 -17 14.0

Lysine (%) 1.30 1.10 0.92 0.60

Methionine (%) 0.65 0.55 0.46

TIyptophan (%) 0.18 0.15 0.13

Calcium 1.0 - 1.4 1.0 - 1.4 1.0 - 1.65 1.5 Phosphorus 0.8 - 1.1 0.8 -1.1 0.8 - 1.2 1.00

*

0/

A-25

I

1.2 PHYSIOLOGY OF LIVESTOCK

This Section revised with the assistance of the Animal and Veterinary Sciences Department. 1986.

1.2.1 Breeding Date Table

Time of Service Calving Date Lambing Date Farrowing Date Calving Date (Deer) July 9 April 17 December 5 October 31

July 23 May 1 December 19 November 14 August 6 May 15 January 2 November 28 August 20 May 29 January 16 December 12 Sept 3 June 12 January 30 December 26

Sept 17 June 26 January 9

October 1 July 10 January 23

October 15 July 24 February 6

October 29 August 7 February 20

November 12 August 21 March 6

November 26 September 4 March 20

December 10 September 18 April 3

December 24 October 2 May 22 April 17

January 8 October 17 June 6 May 2

January 22 October 31 June 20 May 16 February 5 November 14 July 4 May 30 February 19 November 28 July 18 June 13 March 5 December 12 August 1 June 27 March 19 December 26 August 15 July 11

April 2 January 9 August 29 July 25 November 21 April 16 January 23 September 12 August 8 December 5 April 30 February 6 September 26 August 22 December 19 May 14 February 20 October 10 September 5 January 2 May 28 March 6 October 24 September 19 January 16 June

" ..

A-26

1.2.2 Gestation Period (Term of Pregnancy)

~~.-

Mare

Cow (9 months plus 9 days) Ewe (5 months less 5 days)

A verage Period (Days) 347

282 147 Sow (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days) Hind

115 233 156 60 50 28 26 21 30 30 18 345 Goat

Bitch Cat Rabbit Turkey Hen Duck Goose Pigeon Alpaca

1.2.3 "Heat" /Oestrus Table Duration of Oestrum Ewe-2th 8-18 hours

-mature 20-36 hours

Cow 14 hours

(10-18 hours)

Mare 4.5-9 days

Sow 2-3 days

Bitch 4-13 days

Hind

Return after Parturition Late summer/aut.

(4 to 6 months) 40-120 days

9-14 days

7 days after weaning 5-6 months 3-4 months

A·27

Range (Days) 322 - 419 272 - 292 140 - 160 109 - 143 223 - 243 150 -163 55 - 63 48 - 56 20 - 35 24 - 30 19 - 24 28 - 32 27 - 33 16 - 20

Recurrence if not pregnant 17 days (12-19 days) 21 days (18-24 days) 21 days (12-25 days) 21 days (14-26 days)

18 days