Farm technical manual 1996

FARM TEcHNICAL

MANUAL

EDITOR: P.H.FLEMlNG,Bi\grSc

'fMonua'Sales" ... ,.

D~rtme~ioIFartli.~ HOl'lidJ~tu1ilJM:Qftagement

.p'(J. BQx·8~

.

Llru:d1n

f./1tJVers{ty

CliIPerbu'Y NewZe~

Pho~.' (f)~J3.(J$38j9 'lfaK: (03)32538.39

1996

Page 51 originally missing.

Page 51 originally missing.

!!

The F41'mTechttieal Mattualis a versatile teference bo?kwhich brings into one:: place all manner ofessC!ntial technical in[0nrtationrequired by farmers and others i,nvplve<l. in the fanning industry. ..The ManllaIhasbeen. ti<:signed with .the pra.ctitioner innrina. providing data gleaned from· m311Ysowces; butpresellted in non~technicallangua.ge\Vherever

.posslble.

1htMllJ;I~has been completely revised, it]1provedand . en1~ged{thelaSt.OOitioI1 .

was

p~oducedin .. 1991). .

,', ,'<

IwoUidliketq

·thaIlk

the

rtllU1yLlnq,lnUniversio/staffw~o h~Vecontri\>llt¢dmaterilli

for i,IIcorporatioI1inthe manual- •.• 1 woIllQalsoliketoexpressIIiyspecial.apprec/a.tionto ·Mts . Lyttne Clements for her ski:Iledwo9c on her wor~ pcoces$or.

T(ji?~etheManualeffedively,rea<lersat~ advisedto .mst CQllsulttheindex· (SectionL)to

~delltifythelocation ?fthe info~ationrequired.Please note rtiateaeltofthe twelzve .secti()nsi$P~edindh.idually,f()~eX3l11Plei p~e A-90 refers to tlte 9Qthpage of the first

se·ction;B:40referstothe 40tlt page~ftheseco1ld section. . .

" , , ' ' " "

: - , ' ^" "

WlliIeeveryef,fort . has

~en ~deto~urethattheinf0I1TUl1ioll~.tmsl']lblicationis

accW"at€:, 110 .re~pon~ibiIityeanbetakenby LincohllJniversityforanyerroroI0rnissiollln these pages,· nor fotany I()ss ()r. damage reslllting frolll the reliance . ()I1,. or . the .. useof itUormation or .Opin/ollS . contained .. in this .. Manual ... Trade .•. tll\lIlesbavebeen . used oc~asiollally for c1arityand eollvenience, but no preferential.endorsement\>ythe Uniyersity isiI,ltenqea.. nor/saIlY criticism implied • 'lfanY product w~ch. doe~ nQt. apptmr in. the

Manual. .

'AnysqggeSliOllS fottheimprovemCI1ttlftlleMan\IaI wollld

~wel~me&.'

^.

·10r

re~ers'

..•. infOIIl\ation; ..

LinCO~~

^•.•

J)~~¢ntof.Fann

^...

andHO~~ul~·.~anag~ent

~sopr0d~cC!s acompllnion vol~e.7tlte ,I'Fi,I1anfial.BudgetMan~",.W~i~his.311.essCI1ti.al I)Utigetingaid for f3rll1ers.a.ndgrowers,and· is.ptodu~dinApril ofeliCb.year. .

A!

CONTENTS

SECTION 1 - LIVESTOCK AND FEED

Page 1.1 Livestock Feed Requirements and Liveweight Charts

1.1.1 Introduction to Tenns and References Used ... A-3 1.1.2 Breeding Ewe (and Lamb) Feed Requirements and Liveweight Chart

- Weaned ewes (in summer) ... A-6 - Feeding ewes for tupping ... A-7

~ Late Autumn to mid-winter ... A-7 - Late winter/pre-Iamb/start oflambing ... A-7 - After lamb drop ... : ... A-8 - Ewes after shearing ... , ... A-8 - Liveweight Chr,m(Ewes) ...•... A-9 1.1.3 Lamb I Hogget Feed Requirements ... , ... A-I0 - Liveweight Chart (Ewe Hoggets) ... A~ 12 1.1. 4 Beef Breeding Cow (andCaIf) Feed Requirements

and Liveweight Chart ... A13 - Cows after weaning in late autumn ... : ... A-13 - Early to mid-winter ... A-I3 - Late winter (pre-calving I start of calving) ... : ... A-I4 - After calf drop, and through the breeding season ... A-14 - Liveweight Chart (Breeding Cow) ....•... : ...•. : ... ; ... : .. A-I5 1.1.5 BeefHeiferlSteerIBuIl- Feed Requirements and Growth Rates .... A-I6 - Bee/Heifer LiveweightChart ... , ... : ... ; ... A-18 -Dairy BeefLiveweight Chart ... A-19 1.1.6 Dairy Cow Feed Requirements

- Dry cows in winter ... ; ... A720 - Cows in milk ... : ... A-21 1.1. 7 Dairy Heifer Feed Requirements ... ; .... A-22 - Liveweight Chart/or Dairy Heifers ... A-23 1.1.8 Deer Feed Requirements and Liveweight Patterns

Red Deer: - Hinds ... A ... 24 - Stags .... , ... A725 - Growth and Development ... A-26 Wapiti & Wapiti! Red Deer. ... A .. 27 Fallow Deer .. , ... A~27

1.1.9 Goat Feed Requirements ... A-28 1.1.10 Pig Nutrition ... A-29 1.2 Physiology of Livestock

1.2.1 Breeding Date Tables ... A-32 1.2.2 GestationPeriodiTenn of Pregnancy ... A-33 1.2.3 "Heat"/Oestrus Table ... A-33

page Detennining Age of Livestock

-Sheep ... ~.; ... ; ... ,., ... , .• ; ... , ... , .. ; ... ·.; ... : ... _A-34 - Cattle.;" .. : ... ; .. : ... ," .... ~ .. ' ... ; ... ; ...•• , ... ;' ... :, .. , ... A-:34

~ Hor!1es ... ":" .. ; ... , ... ;',' ... A-:35 Temperature,PuI$e and Respiration of Stock ... ' ... " ... A-36 1..2.6

1.3 AnimaIHeal~handl)iseas¢ .' .' .'.

l.i

^{1 Drench} Resistan~e I ReCOmm~ndations.; ... : ... A-36 1.3.2 MineralDeficienciesin Stock

-Risk. Conditions ..•...••.. ; ... : ...•...•.... ; ... , .. _A-38 -QeficiencySympto~s ... , ... ".'" ... _A-42 - Minerals: .S~lenjum ... :: ... ~ ...•..•...• _A-10 . Ml!;~esiilll:l; ,Gl!;lci

lllll .. ··· .. ···· ...

^:~

... : ...

^A-43

Cobalt, Coppel':.7 ... : ..•.... ; .•.... , ... A-44 SodiUJ1l,.!odine, ... : ...• , ... : ... :. A4?

-MineraICo~t~p.t ini<'eed., .. , .... , ... , ...• : ... A47 Some:~0Il11ll0nDise;t$es.ofLivestoclc.

.,l3,ruceHos,is •..

:-.M: ...•...•...•... " ••....•....••.•.•....•...•••... : ...•• A-49

-. Leptospirosis ...•.. , ... : ... : ... : .•. : ...•... , ... , .•.... _A-19

~ .. R:yegra~$Staggers" ; ....•... , .. ,: ..• ~; •..• ; .... , "." d •••••••••••••••• ;., " . , ' ··A-49

: .•• ::¥:~:~I~~:;:~;:::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::;::::::·::;:::::::::~::.:::::~::::::·Zj~

-..• "MilkFev~[ ... ; .... " ... : .. : ... : .. ; ....•..•.•.•. _A-50 -JohIlejsDisease ... : ... ,.~ ... 7""""."""'.""'"A-51 -footrot •...•... : ...•... , ... : ... : ... A-51.

~Flystr:ike ... ; ..•... ; ... ; •.. " ... "., .. :: ... , ... , .. ~ .... ·A:"52 Diseases

01'

Deer

-Maligna#tCatarrhalFever ....•... c .. : ... :; ... ,A-S.5 -Yersiniosis :.: ... , ... ; ...• ::-.••. : ... , ... A-55

~,Tuberculosis.;, ... , .•... .,.., .. ,., ... , •..•... : ... , ... _;\-56 -EnZo()ticAtaiia ...• : .... : .. :::.: ... ,: ...•..• ,.; .... : .• , •...

A.:56

.Lun~WCqt;IIl

... ,: ... .,. ...

A-56 -AboInasaIParasites ... : ... A-51

".Tis$ue Wann ... ~ ... _A.5·8,

Ft!edRe~uirt!~entsaild Live\Veighttlllfi:t~ofSheep

.. : .. , ... ,

,..~~9

Bweding~ Agea!ld J>,hysiologi~allnfonnation of Sheep; ... A~5.9

Sheep Health and Diseases ... : .•... :.' ... A.59·

\\'ooL:.: ... , ...•...•... :., ... , .. : ... : •.. , .. , ... A-59

Sheep'S.tock Uj}it' Measures, ''', ... : ... , ... , .•... A..59

S~ep'perfonnanCe~n NeWAe~landFann~ ...• , .•••• , ...

A.?9

L;unbingPer~e~t~ge C~lculations.,""'" •.... , ... ; ... A·59 L;unbsBom:Ptoportions,~fSinglesITwinsrrriplets ... !' ...•. A7~O Death Rate or.MortaliW .... ,:.; ... A.61 Rams ... : ... : ... :.: ... A-61 Rotational Gfazing.!M<>b Stocking ... ; .... : ... ; .... : •. A-~~,

Wool 1.5.1 1.5:2 1.5.3 15.4 1..5:5 L5.6 1.5.7 1.5.8 '1.5.9 1:5.10 L5.1I 1;5:12.

1.5.13

\\lO.o1 ProductioniSheepPerrormlll):ce on NewZealaftdFarms\:.; .. A-63

~electingSheep for Wool Producti~n ...•...•.. " .:' .... ; ... : .. A-63

\\lool Gro\VflI ... , ... , ....•. , ... ) ... , ... , ... A-()~

Bio\\lo.ot ...•.. : ... ; ... , .. N., ..•... :, ...•... A~65

Shearing Time andFreqlle~cy" .•... : .... : ... ~ .. '., ... ; ... A-66 Preparing forSheaIing; .. ; ....•... , ... , ... , ..••. A~6~

WOQJPreP¥ati.on".: ... , ... ,., ... , ... A-68··

\\loof Char~cteristi~ ... : ... :.h .•..••. ;; .•..•..•.•..•... : ... :.A-74 WQ()lTypes~dWeights fOJ;BudgetingPmp~ses ... A-79 Wo~lSeUingPpti0llsror Wool Growers: ., ., .• : ... A ... : A-79; ... .

~aU1pling. an? Testingpf ~ool ... , ... ; ...•..•... A-.80

"W()()ls .. of~~wZeal~du ... ; ... : ... ; ... A-8~

References ... , ... , ...•... , .... : .. : .. ,: .. : ...•...•... :. A-86 1.6 Bee*':pattle> } ... '..< ...<

< .... . ...•...• . ... . .•.. •••... . ^..i.;,.. . ..' ... .

1.6.1 FeeP:. Req~ireII1~nts ~?LiveweightCharts ()~~eefCattle ..••... A-8j . 1.6.2 B.reeding,AgeilndPhysiolOgiealInlO~a~~ll.~f.BeefCattle ...•.... :A-87 ,

1.6.3 Bee~CattlelIealth·and.Disea~es ....•.•... ".:.; •...•. ' ..•.•... ; .... ; .. ; ... A-87 1.6.4 Bee£Gattle.'St(')ekVnit'MelJS~s ...•.•.•.. ; ....•...••....• .: ... , ..• : ... , ... A"~7 L6.5

Beef'CattlePeif0rt!1lll):ceandHusblll):~

... .

-W€,~inipeJ'centage.? ...•...•...•. ,." ... : ... H • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • A-~1···

1)eatnRate .'. .. ; ... ~: ... :~ ... : .... : ...•...•..•...•...• A-8'7 . '-' Re.lllacell1~ntRate •...• : ....•.•...•.•....•.. : ..••...•.•...•....•... : •... : A-&7 ' ... ~ •.. B~l~, ... ' ..•. : ... : ....• ; ... : ...•. : •• ;.:.; ... ~.~ ... :: A~88 •.

1)re~singotlt Pereentage,sofBeefCattie .•....•. : ... : ... A-:8$

1.7 DairyC!l.ttle .' .. ' .' .• '. ".

.'ii '.' ... " .' ... .

L7.1 F'~edl{equife~en~sandti""e~eigllt.q~arts~fJ)lliry qattJe ... 'T ' 1.7.2 ..

Brt;edi~g~

..

A.geandPlIySiolegiCa1lnf'otWati~~OfDairySattle,

.. ; •. A-89;.

1.73 •.. '

.Dlli~Cattle.liIealtl!

...

~d1)i~ea~e.~

.•...•. / .•...•.. : •. :: •..•....•... " .•...•.. ; ...

A-8~);

1.7 •. 4 . BajJ;ycattle;:StockVl!trMeasU1'es.:;.; ... : ..• : ..••• ; .•. '.': ... , ...•. A,-89 •.. ,'.

1:1:51)aif¥C~ttle:Rert'ol'ijl~ceopNe\\,t';e.~~~ ~gs ... ; ....•.. ^A-8~;

^{... ·}

. 1.']:.6 1)llit;}l.Cow ,,;qondifi~1;l

Scqnng" .... ,.' .•

j .. , ••• >.i~~.;:

... : ... :; ..

^{A~~~ .... .}

l.? 7' Es@ationof Live~eiglltsofI)airyHeifers~ •... :: ... , ... A~94 ... .

,/:,"": ,< ,_<'J,i" <::'~~:'>, "";",,,"',,- ,',,:,'>,"':;">';", ":-, "",'

F~etfl{eqllirelUents:~dLiyePeighfC~artSOf~er

.. , ..•.... " ..•.. ;, ...•

A-9~

"Breediqg al1dPhyS:i910gicaL!nform~tionofR~er ...••...•... : ....•.. A~95

I)~erHealth~dDiseas~s ... ;."'; ... ' .•... ; ... : •.. ;'.; ..•. ; ... , ... A~95 D€\ei"S'toekUnit' Measure~ .. ~.~: .... ; ... ,'" .•.. : ":'" ... ,.: ... : ... ,A.-9;S De~r •. Perrol'ijlancean~Husblil1dry .. :, ...•...•..

y:\.: ... :: ...

^A-9~

.··.Venis.on~J;Q~~cti~n ... : .. :' ... : ... :: ...•.. : .. : ... ::.: .. ,. .. :.: ... , ..• A .. ~' . VelvetProductiQn ... : .... : .. : ... , .. : ... , ...•.. " .. A798

1.9 Goats 1.9.1 1.9.2 1.9.3 1.9.4 1.9.5

Page Feed Requirements of Goats ... , ... A~ 1()0 Breeding and Physiological Information of Goats ... A~ 100 Goat He.alth and Dise:ases ... A-100 Goat 'Stock Unit' Measures ... A·100 Goat Fibre

~ Mohair ... , ... ,.: ... A~ toO ..; Cashgora ... : ... , ... ; .... ';-\..;100 - Cashmere ... : ... A-IOI 1.9.6 Goat Meat Production.; ... A~102

UO. Pigs

1.10.1 Nutritioq of Pigs.; ... : ... A~103

1.10.2 I3reedingand Physiological information of Pigs ... A-I03 L 103Pigs~ Terms Explained ... A-103 1.10 ..

4

Pig Breeds and Breeding Policies ... ; ... A-I05 1.10.5 Pig Housing: Effiue~t andWater ... : ... ; ... A-I06 1.10;6 Factors Affecting SOW. OutputJPigletSurvival ... A~ 108 1.10.7 Sow. Condition ... ; .. , ... ,,: ... : A-109 [10.8 Grading of Carcass ... ; ... ; ... , ... A·

no

1.11 Nutritive Value of Stock Feeds

1. U.l Nutritive Vlllue of Pastures, Conserved Feeds, Fodder Crops, Conc.entrates and By-products

·_·Pastures ... ; ... A:"112 - Lucerne ... : ... ; .. ; ... A~112 - Silages ... ; ... : .. A-112 '- Hays .. l ... , ... A~113

- Straws ... : ... · ... : ... , ... ; .... A-113 - Crops ... : ... ; ... ,;;; ... ;,'; ... : ... A~ 113

.~ Gree:nfeeds ... : ... ; ... : ... : A-114 .. Concentrates: ... ; ... : ... :.:.: ... A-114 1.11.2 Nutritive ValtieofPig Feeds ... ; .. : ... ; .. ; ... , ... A~115

1.12 Stoc.kUnit Conversions

1.12.1 Introdudion: ... : ... ; ... : ... , .... ; ... : ... A-117 1.12.2 MAf'. Stock Unit Figures .: ... , ... :." ... ;; ... ", ... A-l11 1.12.3 FurtherStoek Uhit Conversions (Common Usage) ... ; ... , .... A-119

viii

SECTION2 - PASTURES

Page 2.1 Background Informationon N.Z. Pastures

2.1.1 IntFoduction ...•.. ,..; ... '".; .•. ~ .•... , .. , ...•... B-3 2 .. 1.2 Role of Perennial Ryegrass (and theuEndophyte Dilemma .. ) ... B-3 2.2 GrassVariet_es- Feattlres and Establishment

2.2.1 Establishment of"New"I"Alteniative^lt Grasses ... ;; ... B-S 22.2 Ryegrasses

2.2,3 2.2,4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8 2.2.9 2:2.10

-Perennial/Long TetmRyegrasses ... ,. ... , ... ,., ...•. , ... B-S

• Short Rotation1 Term Ryegrasses ....• ; .. , ... ; ...•...•..• B-6 Cocksfoot.:;.: .•.••....•.••... ~ ... ; ...••...•.•... ; ..•..•..•... , ... ; ... B-6

PrairieGrlls~ ("Ma

tua") ...

B-7 Grazing.Srome("G

ll1

a .. ) .... " ... : ... ~ ...

13-7

TlilIFesctle ... ; ... ; ... : ... , .•... B-S.

PhaIaris("M

aru") ... ; ...•.•. : ... ; .. ; ..•...•...•... ^B-S

Timothy("l{ahu") ...•...•...•...•...•...•...•.... B-9 Other Gras~es AVl\ilable for Pasturelmprovement ...••... B-9 Susceptibility of Grass V!lrieties to Argentine Stem Weevil ...•..•. B~9

203 Clovers Varieties-CharacteristicsandEstablishrttent

2.3.1 Establishment of "New" Clover Cultivars ... , ... ;.B-IO 2.3.2 WhiteClo\"er

- "Tahora" ... ; .... ; .. ;;: ...•.. ; ... ;; ... ;; ...•• ; ... : .... ; .... B-'IO - "Pitau." .•... ; ...•... ; ... :.;, .. ;;,. ...•..•... ^:.B-I0 -"Kopu" ... : ... ; ...•. ; ..•... ;.;.; ... ; •...•... B_IO - "Huill" ... : ... ; ... ; ...• : .... ; ... ^B~ll 2.3.3 Red Clover

- "Pawera" ... ; ... ; ... · ... ;· ... ; ... ; ... B-fl -"c6lenso" ...•... ;.; ... ; ... : ... :.~ ... ;.; ...•... ; .. ;B-li .. "TUroa"· ... : ... ; ....•. ; ... ;.; ... ;.;; ... B ..

ll·

Su~terraneanCl(}ver. ... ; ... ; ... : .•... ; .. , •..• \ ... ;B~n Other Clovers .. , ... , ... , ... : ... : ... , ... , ...

B-ll

2.4 Lucel'ueandQther'eastul'e-r,egumes

2;4.1 . Lucerne Varieties and Characteristics;; ... .; ... : ... ; ... B~12

2.4.2 OtqerPastureLegumes ... , ... , .... , ... B-13 2:5 Hel'bSfor Pastures

2.5.1 Chicory ("Purta") ... , .... ' ... ; •.. , ... , ..•.. ;, ... , ... ; .... ,,;: ... , .... B-13 2.5.2 "Sheeps B

lll1l

et" ... ; ... B-13 2.5..3 Plantain ... , ... B-13 2:6' Guide to the Main Agronomic Featu.Fes·ofPasture Species ... , ... B-14

2;SPasturel'ypesFor Specific Environmcnts

2.S.1 A Gqide to the Suita}Jilitr0fCom111on past:UreSpe~iesfor

the MainEnvironpwntsin~ewZealanr ...•... , •... , ... ; ... ; .. B-:16

Pas~esfor .Steep

.aill

CQuptry.,., .. ' •.•.. , .. , ... ,' ... ': ... B-11 Pasture Sp~cie~for South IslandJ;HllandHi~h C?~tTy ...•... :B-lS I>a~turesfor Sumfner-DrylEastGo~s~CultiyataQle Land. "'::" ... :B-20

2.9Fj}rageSl1rul>~lBrowse Sp~~i~

.... :.;;;;" ...•...

~

^...

!; ... • ... ":,,.:, ..

i.;.;; ..•.... B-21 )tstimllting J.>!lstu ..

e~ryMlJt~er{l)~)On'ilnns..i:

.' ... ' .. ". .. •....•...•. •••. .•... ...>

2.10 . .1

S\ll11ffiary

ofMetliQ<1~Usedto EstllllateIJry Matter .: ... , ... ~t2 2:10.2U~~g E~eAsses~lJlen,tto Estimat~ pry M~tter ... i •••••••••• ; ••••• , ... :B-22.

2.103 .l.(s~g .. Raswre P17Qbe",f'~singPla~e Mete17"o[ "S~aI;dStick'· ...• B,,~4 ".

2.lOA .l;T~ing·rCutandl?'Y"'fechniqueto M~asureIJM .• : ..•... , .. : ...•...•. B~24

2.105 .E.stinlating'DMftolllfa.stute.Cuts, (Wthout<itying) ...••.. : ... , ... l3;-2~

2.10.6 .pas~eC\ltting'fe~l1niqtle ... : ...•. • ... , .. : .. : ... J146 2. it). 7 Estimarittg .aay andSilage))ryMatter .. ; ....•... ~ .•.•...•...••...•..• B.27 .. 2 .. 11

.Pllsture.Gro~tlt~at~st<ot~eedBudgetil1g

^•.

~r(.F~rlD~ ^•••

2.1L 1. ~titnati1.tg.Fann Pastl1re~rodllctioq" ... ~:." .•... "';, ....

:'i . ., ...

B-29

~.11.2 PastureGr~wthRatesf()rN.z;Rj:gi(msfDr~~cts '.'

.. :~:~i:;~·sif~~:~:;:~;::::.~:::::j::::::::.~;;~:::::;.::;;::;:~;:::::::;:::::.:.;:.:::~i· ' ..

-SOllth.ISlan~~ites, . .: .•...•...• , .... ' ... , ... ; •..•...• ; ...•... .: .•... B-32.

D~ Fatitn Past:Urt! O:t:(')lvt~ Rates ... : ... , •.. : ",: .. '.' .•....•.. '"''.:''' ..•.... :l.l-33 aiRC;oulltTyPast:uteGi°wthltatesi> i . " ... '.' ..•...

"N0rthlsliUl4HillCountryP~~s, •.•.. , ...••... ; ... , .... J.l:34 -.S9nthlSlandI#lJ&mghF,,~tTyI>astures,. ... B-39

-8ell,li-Deyelopeg.Il~t:utes;"'"'''.'':'''.''':''''~''':''f'''

..•....•...•..•....

1.l ..

3p··•·•

-lIfl~ct:ofSl1llIl>'/~:4~dy Aspects;.

··t .. ·.····.·,,?···.·.· "'r;-:' ...

^;B-36

-.

titfl~nceot'.Sl"pe/Stet~Aess

..•...•.. , •...•.•... , ... : .. ·:·.··· •• · .. ·Bc-3}

.•.. ~ ...• ~fluenceofEnyj17Qt»n.j:nt .... : .•... ;.: .... :.;; ... :.~:i •. .: •..•.•..•. : .•. : ....•. l.l-~'7 C!\llter~PlJ'.l.)ryland.andPtrigated~~sture~l'~dUc~on .•..•.. ; ..•. ~.;.: .•... 1.l~3g O:t:azingMan~geinentamtpaswre.or9~ .••....•.••. : .. : ...•...•...• ,1.l~3~

;,',' ':,

2.12 Id~nntica~ionOf<;ra$Ses~1l4~ldy~f~.

..' ... '. ... ..•. .'

...i ... .

. . . '2.17.1 .•

l~elltifi.catiOl.lof{k~sses".

: .. ; .•. "., .•.•• ; ... , ... , ... ,' ... ;"' ...

"B~~r

2.12.2 IdentificatloRofCloyers." ... : ... :., ... ;.: .... ,.: ... ::.8;46

3.1.

11orageCrqps.> > ..

i ' i . > > .' ... •••.

. < > ... ... ... '.' ... .

3. 1.1 I~{0I1tlationProvi4edarlll F~erRefel'en~es .... , .•... ; ... : ... C-:3 3. 1.2 Fo~~eCrop Husb~qry, Yields ·l!1ldf,l~tritive VaI~e} ... <;~3 3.1.3 St9ckFf~#thPtDbleItlsonForage. ~r()ps ... ;; ' .... ,. "." ... :.. C-4 3 .1:4 SpeCi~cfqr~geCrops:<A.d~i~onal.mf()l1l1lUion.anaSautions.

-Br8$SlC~ ... "H'~"'.(:';" ... ; ••••.•••.•• , ••. : •...• ;.:; ...•

;n .•...

C-5

.~ Cereals ... , ... : ... : •.•. , ...•.. , ...•...•... :.;: .•.•.• " ..•...••••..• C

c

6.·

:&t:::t·i:;:;:;'.2:E;:::Ft~;:·t=·:i'}::E:i,EB~

..

^!~th~;'·'

" . ... : ... : ...

^{L .. ! .•. ~.,} .• : ..•..•.. ~; .. ; .•.•..•. "' ••. · .• ;7.·· .; ••

:...c?1:

ⁱ

•.. -•. 1'ahle ..

oISlBt!me7;.fora~eCrqlJ&

....•... : ... ...••...•... : .•... q-8

>( ... -TaoleofWi.rIli!r~Qr,a~e:Crop~

.•. " ... ; •....•

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4.2.2... H$fbicide-Resistant .. W~efls: .': ... : ....•.... '.: ... ~ .. '.' •... : ... ;, .•.•..•...•. [)-7

~.1.3 . mtegtated Wee4.Ml!1lagement .. ; ... : ... : ... ; •. D.,.~

Page 4.2.7 SpecificScrub;mdHardto KillWeeds ... , ... , .. , ... ·.· ... ·.c·· ... · .• ·,·D-12 4.2.8 .. WeedControl.inCa~h Crops ... , ... , ... : ... " ... D-16 4.2.9 ... WeedControlinForage13rassicas, ... , ... , ... , .... , ... D-J 8

4.2.10 Buying Seed,Identifying the. Weed Seeds /Imp\lrities from

Information Provided ohthe Seed Analysis Certificate ... D-19

I~seCt P~stControl

4.3.1 Intr()duction .... , ... : ... ;.:.: .... , ... ; ... , ... , ... D-28 4.3.2 Information Required When DealingWith PestProblems ... D~28

',4.3.3 Pes~ ThreSh~ldL~vels ... , ... ' .. ; ... , ... : ... D-29 4.3.4 Alternatives tolnseqticides ...•... , •...•.• : ... , ... , .•.. ' ... , ... D-30 - ·Cultund Control Meth~<is ...••..•... , '.' ... : ... i. :',' ... D-3Q '-Plant Resistan~~ ... , ...•...•....••. D-30 -~iol()gi9al Control .. ",", ... ; ... ' ... ; ...•.•...•... ; .. D-:U Integrat~~ Pest.ManageII1~nt

.':r'" ...

i ... i . . . .. . . " ••••••••• D-31 Insectpest Resistance M;magement .• , ... , .. ; ... : •.. , ...•... D-32 In~ect Controlin Pj\Sture i •••• ; ••••••••••••••• 'i ...•.. ; •.... ,.; ...•...•..•....•..••. D"33 .• InsectCo~trolin Lucerne.,. ',' ... ". ", : .... ; ... D-35 4.3.9 .. ..InsectC()ntrolinFo~age Brassicas ... , ... D-36 4.3.1Q Insect ContrpUn Cash Crops ... : ... : ... D-38 4;4 DrseaseControl in

Plants

.··4.4.1 Disease c:ontrQl inCashCr6ps~ ..•...•.... ; ... ;; ...... i •• ; ; • • • • • • • ; 1)-45 .~ ... qrOwtll Stage Key for Cereals ... ; ... 0-48 -Seed-boI11eOiseas~s inc:ere~s(includingMaize) ... D~9 .. Air-borneDiseasesofCtlrealCrops{~cludingMai~e) ... D-50 -Soil-bome Dis~ases ofCrQPs .. : ... , .. i, ... , ... , ... , ... D-54.

. . .... ~ .. R~ferences ...•.•... , ... : .. , .. , ... , ...•...•....•.... : ....

i.: .. ^p

^-54

Di.st;aseContrQlin.Pasnn:e ....• , ...• " .• , ...•..•.. , ... : .•• : ..•.. ,.,. ... 0-55 Disease C.mtrol4l Lucei'Ile ... i . . . , •••••••••• ".0-56

Ph()SPhllticF~rtili$;ers ... . .. . ... '. ... . ... .

5. L 1 Major Pho~phaticFertilisers:Super,lt0nglife, RPIL ... ;.,.,.c: .. c, ..•.•.... "l.?,-3

~. P4?sphOi¥S Contentan~.Avail:iQility ... , .. , ... E·3

•.. Seley~ngtheMostS\lita}}le PhosphaticF~rtiliS~r. ... "., .. : .. E·3 - FurilierlFlfOlmation on RPR. and LO[lglife Fertilisers ...

$4

MeaSuri~~ th~';PlantAV:iilablenpinSuperpl1os~hat~~based

Fertilisers (The C:itric Sol\lbilityTest}; ... c ... E-5 Otiter Pl1osphati~Eertilisers ... E-5 -R~yertep Superp~9sphat~s ... " ... ; ... E-.5 -Triple SuperphosphMe .... : ... ^{h . i} . . . E-5

xii

Page - Ammonium Phosphate; ... ; ... , ... : ...•... E-6 - Partially Acidulated Ph.osphate R.ock (PAPR} ...• "E-6 5 .1.4 Timing .of P Fertiliser Applicati.ons .. , .... , .•.. , .. _ ...•...•... , ..•... E-6 5.2 Sulphur Fertnisets

5.2.1 C.ontent.of Sulphtrr.Fertilisers: ...•...•...•.••...•... : ...•.. E-?

- Sulphate ... ; ... ; ... ;,;; ... E~ 1

~ElementalS ...•...•...•...•..•...•.. : ... E-7

~ Sulph~-Fo~fied Superph~sphate (Sulphur-Super) ... ; ..•... E-?

- Othyr$lllphur Fertilisers ... : ...• E .. 7 Choice ofSulphllf.Fertiliser ... ; •... : .... " ....•.. , ...•... E~8 Timing .of SUlphtrrFertiHser AJipHcations .: ... E-8 . Potassium Fertilisers

5:3.1 Potassium·FertilisetTyjJ~s •...•..•...•..••.•. ; ... : ... : ... : ... E-H) . - PotassiumChloride .• ~ ... E;;lO

-.Potassium SUlphate: ... ; ... E-JO.

- Mixed and 5omp(}UJ1d Fertilisers ... ~_lO Timing ot'Potassium FertlliserApplicatio:ijs ... E7IO

504.· Nifrqgen i<er.tilisers

5.4.1 .lntroduction ... ;.: .•...• ; ... ; .•..• ; ... ; .•.•..• : ... " ... :E-l1 5.4.2. Nitrogen Fertiliser Types .•.. : ... ~ ... I~-ll

_ AnunoniwnSllIphate ... ; ... : ... E-ll - Urea .• , ... " ... : •...•... E-ll ... LiquidNitroge~ .. ; ... : •.... , ..• :.: ... , ... E.12 -~oniIlI11Nltrate.andCalci~~()niumNitrate .•... : ... E_12

" Di-~oni~Phosphate(pAP> andM(}~o-Ammonium ....••....

Phosph~te (1Mi\P) ... ;.: ... ; ... E:.l~

-Oompound Fertilis7rs ..••.. '~ ... : ... '" ., ...•...•.. , ...•.... , .•... E712 -SlowRel~ase NFettili~ers ..•. , ... , ... , ...•..•..

E-g

-Organic N~trogen. Fertilisers .•...••.•...•.•.• \> ...

f:,,13

5.4.3 . Soil Tests and Plant Tissu~AnalY~is for l-Jitrogen ... , ... ; ... f:d3 5.4.4· l-Jitr.o~en Fertilisert\ppIica:tiOl1!)1ldResp~nses ... , ...•... : ... E-I4 - Pastures ...•. , ... :: ... : .•..••...•... ; ... J~-I4 - Crops ... E~l~

5.5· Fertiliser For Bay and Silage Paddocks .. : ... : .... ; .. ; .... ; ... ; ... ; ... :.E-16 5.6. Calculating Fertiliser·ApplieationRates.; •. ;, ... : ... : ... ;.,.; ... ;E-17 5.7 C()sting·ofFertilise .. s ... ;.; ... ; .•.. ;;.: ....•... ; ...•. ;; ... : ... ,.;.; ... ; .... : ... ~E-18

Page 5.8. Lbning

5.8.1 Jiasftn"e Growth Respon~eto Lime ... ; ... ~ ... " ... :E-20 5.8.2 Lime Requin:d to Ris_x S~il pH ... , ... ;.E-21 5 . .8.3 Freq~ency of Liming:, ... , .... , ... , ... ; ... : ... , .. ; ... E-21 5.9 Sf;1ilTesttng

5:9.1 S.oil Samplmg ... , .... ,. ... , ... , .. ; ... , .... ,..E-22 5.9.2 mtelI'retatiori ofSoil."['est Results ..•. . '

'. (AgResearcli Soil Fertility Sem~e) .. : ... , ... E-22 Soil '(estRang¢st~AcliieveT~p prodUction,,, ... E-23

Amount

of Fertiliser Requin:d toLiR Soil Test valti~s ... , ... E-23 . Amo1Ult

of

Fertiljser Reqpir<;<l Aef0tttingtoStoc~gRate ... E-24 5:W Mineral Deficieneies of

Plants

.. .. .. 5.l(j:1E,sse~tialElen1e~ts for'ftant Gro~, ... ,., ... ; ... ,.;:.: .. ;,.; ... E-25 .5.10.2 Mmerals:Plant Analysis and Standards ... , ... , ... : ... E-26 . -.SatnplingPast.vre.and Crop::: ... , ... i.;., ... ,.: .••••••• ~ ••• ; ••• E:-26

"Interpretation of Analysis Resnrt~ ... ; ... ,: ... : ... E-2(i 5.10.3 Mjn:et~lDefi~iencY:Syjnptol1lS in

White

Gloyer ... " ... E-29 . -'Plio'sphonciDxfidericy .•... ;: ... : ... ~ ... , ... ;.: ... E~29

-$!1lphurDeficie~cy .. ; ... , .... ; .... , ... ; ... ,,; ... E-49' - Potassium DeficielICY ... ;i ... : ... ; ... ^E~29 -: Molybden):JlllDeficie1).cy .•... ; .•... ; .. ;, .. :: ... ! ... ; .. : ... : .• :E-29··

5.10.4 Molybdellutn I?eficiencY ... ~, ... ~ ... : .... : ... , .. E~~Q :'Molybdentltt! Peneient·Soils .... ,.; ... ~ ...•...•. E-30 -.Topdressing with,Molybdenum .•.. , ... , .. , .. : ... E-31

~MolybdenllI1l.SulphurandCopPerInteractions .•.. ,.: ... E-3

i

-Litneand M~lyb.ite~):Jlll ... , •.. , ... : ... : .... i ... ;.; ...• ; ..•..•.. ; ... E-31 , .... Traceand;Mino~EletnentFerti1iser~ateriats ... ; ... E-32·

$.1 ~ " Soil PhyslcafConditions alJd Crop Production,

5~11.1 ImP9rtance ofGQQdSqjlStrilctpre".; ... : •. ,; .... , ... ~: ... E-h 5; 11.2~oitD~Ilg~ .... , .. ^~.i.;~ .. :.:.: .. :':., ... ^';:~ .. : .•.. : ... , ... ^E~34 .. l{educmgthe Risk ... ^u •• ; ••• , . . . ; . . . : , ••• : . . . E-35 ..

Id~ntificatioll

of 8rift Stmctllrei>J;()tiletns ... : ... : ... E-35.

Correcting Soil Compaction ProblyIlls ~ SUl>soil Cultivation ~ ... E-36

·5.l~ ,The Soils ofNe:wZealartd

. . . :s~Er:z::::::·::::~:::.~'::::::::;::·:::~:::::::::::::::.:E!

~Allophanic, Granular ... : ... : .... ;; ... ; ... E-44 -Oxidic, M.etanic; <;Hey •. , ... : ..•.. : ... ; .•...• : ..• , ... E45 - Organic, Rece'nt;.Raw, AnthrQpic ... ; ... : ... , ... E-46 5 .. 13. Soil Referen(:es ... , ... ~ .... , ... ; ... ; .... , .... E-50

xiv

6.1 Farm Forestryl Agroforestry ...•... ' . ' .... /

6.1:1 PllUll1ing.~Forestryyenture ... " .... ;.,:, .. , .. : .•.. " ..•... ; ... : .. " .... ~ ... :.,F-3 6.1.2 ForestrySity and~pecies Selecti0Il"'''''';'' ... ,;., ...•...•. , ... " ^{F 4} 6.1.3 Characteristics of Tree Varieties ... :., ... , .... ,F ~ 7 6.1.4 Land.Pteparationfo(Planting ... : ...•...•.... F-12 6.1.5 Tree .Establishment ..•. · ... ; •....•..•..••. ., •...•..•...•...•..•...•.... F-13 ..

- Selection and.Care~fTr:eS~ocks ...•...•..•.. : ...••.•... ; ...•... F.,I3 - PI/lllting Techniq~e .•...•• : •...•... " ...•..•....•••.•....•... ".F~ 13

•.••. - Spafing ... : ...•.•..•. -:H •••• " : ... , ••• ; •••••••••••••• , ••••• , ••••••••••• F.,14 WQodlot Management ..• " ... ; ... : •••..• : ... " .... : ... F-~5

-Tending.Reginles ... : ... , ... ; .•..•.••.•. ; ....• F~15.

:~~::::::l;{::;;::::::::::::::~::1:?:::::::::i:;):;:::::::::;:;:,;:::::::::::::::;~~!:

-SatliPleManageflleIlt Schedulel>Jor~diataPinlf'· ....•..•. : ...• f-17

protectiQ?ofl're~s .•. ; ..•.•...•....• : ..•...• : •...•...•...•...•...• : ... F=19 Stock. CJcazingU?der. Trees ..•. " .. ; •• 0 .. : .•....•. , ... ; ... F.,20.

fm·estry References .••.. :; ...•..• ;, ... : •••....•....•...•. , .•...•..•. ,; ... ' ••. F.21 . ," ,/::-' ':'<'

.·She.lt~t ^B¢lts -Pi;i~'iiples

.. :';:., .... , .... ,.; ... ; .•• ,:.. ... : :" : .. : .. : .... : ...

i.. ... : '," ..

Jl-22

Wire ... :.; ... ; .. , .. ·.? .. , ...•... : .•..•... ; ...

^~

..•.... ,.; .. ' ... : ... ' .. : ...

^0-.3.

Post~an9Int~l11,led~~t~SUl?pOl:t~ .. ,; ... , .•...•. , .. '.' ... , ...••..• ¹ 0-9."

Staples

c.?'.'.: .... , ..•. :;,.'.;.H ... '., ..

'c ••• , ... : ••••••• : •••• G~IO W~tting Eene~s ... .; •. ,; .. : ...•...•. : ... , ... : ••...•.• : •...••.••.. 0 • .11

. B".

" F ' ...•

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..•.• le~tnc .. ell~eJDsatQrs ...•. ' ... ⁿ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • ; •••••• ' . . .

o,·U

.$traiIler~emQli~~ ... , ... : •. : ..••... : .•••.•....•... " .. ': •..••••...•. : .. , ...

G-,.lZ

-Dia~!lllal StayA~semhly ... : .•... : ...•.••.•...•...•.• :.0-.13 -H~riz0ntalSt;l}' f.$$~fllQ~)l.:.i ...•. ,: ... , .•••.••. : .... ; ... G..J4 - Breastptock Straittel' Assetnbly ... : ... " ...•.•.. (J~15 .... '.

E:ie~tric.F~neing .•...•... , ...•.. ; ••.... ; ... : ..••... , ... : ....•... G-16 ' - Ellergisers •.• : •..•...•.•.. ;.; ... : ..•.. q~16·~.

-ElecP'i.c rellceSystems: .. : .. : ... : ... 0-1$ ' ••.

-.EartlIipg.(Gtoundmg)S~~tem ... : .• · ...•... : ... q,.20 -Testin~and Ealilfll'mding~.: •. : ... 0-2.0 -. Ttaining.~tock'fo ElectncFen~ing ... ".:."" .• 0-22 - .Safety. Re<l\1~~men~s!UldRegulatibns •.... , ... , ... {H2

. Fl!llceTY[)es, ...• : ... : ..•..•...•..•.... ;, ... : ..•....••

0~23

Page 7.2 Farm Roads

7.2.1 Position of Road.; ... ; .... ; ... ;; ... ; ... , ... ; ... 0-25 7.2.2 Grades ... ; ... ; ... G-25 7.2.3 BelldsandTuming Circles ... ~ ... G-26 1;.2.4 Cross Section Profile· .. " .•.... ; .. ;.;; ... ; ... ; ... , ... G-26 7.2.5 Aggregate·; ... ,.; ... ;.; ... ; ... ; •... ; ... , ... :0,.28 7.2:6 Water Table Drainage.~ ... : ... G-28 7.2.7 Fills and Cuttings ... , ... _0-2<j 7.2.8 Bridge and Culvert Design ... ; ... ; ... G~30

References ... G-30 7:3 Drainage

7.3.1 Types ofOrainageProbtems ... ; ... ; .• ; ... ~ ... ; ... : ••. 0-31 - Surface,8ubsUrfac,e ... ~ •...•..•...•...•... {i-31 7.3.2 Types ofQt!linage~ystems ... ..,,, .. ~ ... ,... ... 0-32 - Surface, Subsurface ... 0-32 -Advantages lUld Disadvantage~ ... , ... ; ... : ... G-33 7.3.3 KeyIssuesinDesignand lRstallation of Dr!linage SYstews ... ; ... 0'-34 -. Surface, Subsutfa~e ... ;.; .... ; .•.•...•.... , ... ; ..•..•.... ; ..••. G .. 34 7.304 Steps in the. Dr!linageProject ..•.... , ... 0-36.

References ... , ... , .... '..; ... , ... ; ... ; .•.•. :G-36·

7.4 Irrigati()D

7.4.1 Units of¥easurementUsedinJrrigation ... ; ... ; .•. G-37 7.4.2 IrrigatiollSCheduling ...•.. , ... : ...•... " ... , ... G-37 - How MuchWatetto Apply ... G-37 - Water Hol!liilgc~~a~tyofSoils ... ' ... G-38 - (';rop It0?t.Depths ... ; ... : ... G-39 - EfliCiencYOf Irrigation A~plication .. I ... G-41 - When to Irrigate ... , ... G_41 - Rate ·of Aplllicati!>u ... : ... "G-43 -"Feel -rest" for SoilMoistnre ... :' ... ^{0 '} . . . , . . . G-46

IrrigationMethods.~ ..•. , ... i ' ... ' ... , ••• ,., •••• " ••••••••••••• , ... G-47 -Border-Dyke SysteIIls ... , ... " ... , .••... G-47 - Sprinkletlrri,gation ... " ..• i ... l.; .•...•.. i ••••••• , •••••••••.•.••••••••••.••..••. G-41 -.:HorticultnraIIrrigiltion ...•...•...•. ; ..•...•.•...•... ~ ...•... : •.•. G~50 Further InfonnatiQn ... : ... G-51 7.5 W~terSupply

7;5,1 Farm Water Requirements , ... ; ... , ... ;; ... , ... ;; ... ~ ... G-52 -Average Rates.ofDemand ....•.. h ... H •• G-52 -Peak.RatesofDemand ....•..•. , ... , ...•... 0-5,2 - Quantity an4 TimePattems ... G-52 7:5.2 AverageWater RequirementsforFarmWaterSupply ... G-52 - Srock Water Requirements ... G-52.

- Domestic Consumption ••. ; ... ; .... , ... , ... , ... G.,.53 xvi

Page - General Farming Activities ... G~53

- Long T.erm Demands in Domestic and Stock Supplies ... G-54 - Storage Provision of Tanks and Dams filled by

Pumping Of Gravity from a Supply ... G-54 - Puinping Rates for Filling Storages from Supply ... , ... G-55 7.5.3 Peak Water Requirements for Farm Water Supply

- MaximUm Rates of Consumption for Domestic and

Stock Purposes ... : ... , ... G-S5 7.5.4 Working Lives for Farm Water Supply Equipment ... G-57 7.6 Structures and Storage

7.6.1 Dimensional Data forDesign of Farm Structures ... G-58 7,;6.2 Sheep and Cattle yards ... G.59 7.6.3 Deer Yru;ds .. ; ... G-60 7.6:4 Wooishecls .. ; ... G-61 7.6.5 Cattlestops ... : ... ; ... G-62 7.6.6 Grain Storage ... ; ... G-63 Further Reading ... ; ... G-64 7.7 Tractors and Implements

7.7.1 Tractor Powef ... G-65 7.7.2. Fuel Consumption ... G-66.

7.7.3 Tractor I hnplement Workrate, Operating Speed

and MatchingWorkrate ... ; ... G-66 - Field Efficiency ... G-66 - Speed of Operation ... G-67 - Tractor! hnplement Matching .

7.7.4 Type ofhnplement. ... , ... ; ... G-70 Further infonnation ... ; ... ; ... ; ... G-70 7.8 Sprayer Calibration ... : ... 0-71

SECTION 8 - ORGANIC PRODUCTION 8.1 Certified 'Organic' Production

8. L 1 Introduction by Bob Crowder ... : ... H-3 8.1.2 BIO-ORO New Zealand .. ; ... : ... H-5

- Extracts from the Certified Organic Production Standards for BIO~GRO N.Z ... · ... H-6 - Principles of Organic production ." ... H-6

SECTION 9.- LEGAL REQUIREMENTS

Page 9. lR~source Management Act 1991

9.1.1' Introduction ... ,. ... ' ... 1-3 9.1.2 A Brief Outline oftheAct..., ... : .. , ... ~ ... .l-4 -PartlI ~ The P,urposeand Principles of the Act.. ... ;1-4 -Part III -DUties andR:estrictionsUnderthe.Act.. ... I~4

~PartIV - Fun(:tions, Powers and Duties .... ~ ... ,., ... :I-6 - Part V - Plans,Statements, Standards ... , ... , .... :1-6

··Part VI -Resource Consents.: ... I-7 . 9.J.3 Mal<i:ng anappHcation for a ResomceCc;msent ... ; ... .1-8

- EnvironrnentalImi>act ~eport ... ; ... ; ... ~; ... ,.I-8 - Notitication of Applications ; ... : ... , .•. ;.; .•... ;: ... 1-8 .-Submissiq~s ... ; ... : ... , ...•...•... , ...•..

:.1-9

-The Hearing ... : ... :.: ... : ...•.... ;: ... ;.; ... , .... ;.; ... :.~.I-9 - Qec.isions 9filie Consent Authority ... : ... I~lO .·Appeals :.' ... :: ... , ... " ... ; ... : ... 1-10

"::Durat;ion ofResour~ Consent ... : ... : ... ,I-lO.

"Treaty ofWaitangiTribunal Land Claims.: ... ; ... I-lO 9.1.4

sunnnary ... : ... : ... ; ... ,; ... , ...

I: 10

9,1.5 Points toNotein Regional & District Plans ... ; ... 1-11 - Subdiviston ... ,.; ... ·; .... ; ... : ... 1-11 .: EsplanadeReserve~ .. : .... ~ ... , .... ; ... , ... ; ... 1:..11

" RequitementsandHeritage orders ... ; ... i ... , ... 1-12 -.Application of Fertiliser!> ., ... : .. ; ... 1-13 -Rubbish Disposal ... , .. ,' ... ,; ... ;;.;,: ... , ... ; ... 1-13

~, SUIt1!llary ...•.. , ... , ... , ... ; ... ; .. ^:1,,13 9.1.6 TheConsqltative Proce~s-The RoTe of the· Public ... ; ... 1-13 9.l.7 Further Information About the Resourc.eM~nagelnent,A.ct ... ; ... H4 9.2 R~source ManagementActAppendices.

9.2.1 Dl!fillitionpf Sliistainable Management .: ... ; ... ; ... 1-15

".2.2 Structuteof the Resouree Management Act ... ; ... ;., ... ;H6' 9.2.3 Further Principies of the Act; ... , ..• , ... , ... : ... 1-17 9;2.4 Restrictions <.>n Use of Land ... :.; ... , ... ;; ... :.1~18 9.2.5 Adverse Effects on the Envirqnment ... : ... ~:.""'"

:-1-19

9.2.6 Compensation;::.; ... : ... , ... ;; ... ; .... '; ... :; ... , ... 1-20:

9.2. '7 Definition: of Activities ... : ... ; .. ; ... :.I~21.

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xviii

Page 9.3 Healt~ and Safety Employment Legislation ..

9.3.1 Impactof HeaJth& Safety Employment Legislation

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in

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~ummary ofth.eprovisions of the Act Re)evant to

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Page

SEcnON 11 ~ MEASURE~ENTS ON FARM AND FOREST

rtJ1:he MetriclDeCim1d System

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xX

Page 11.14 Speed I Velocity Measures . .

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11 . .15 Temperature - Fahrenbeitand Celsi~sConyersions; ... ; .. :, ... K-24 11.16 BuSllel Conversions

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1 L 17.1 Determining Actu,al Area and Distance OIl, Hill Slopes; ... K~26

H.18FimlDce Measures

11.18.1.· Co~fofSei'vicing'Table'Mortgages ... " ... ; ... ; .. : .. ;,," ... ; ... K-28 11.19 Forest Metrics

-Stemspel'Acre toStemsperHectare ... ; .. ; ..•...•.... : ....•...•... :.; •. K-29 -Tree Spacings: Imperial to Metric Conversions ... IC-:30 - Cubic Feet per Acre to· Cubic Metres per Hectare ... K -:31

SECTION 1

LIVESTOCK AND FEED

Contributors

P.H. Fleming: Department of Farm and Horticultural Management.

P.R. Beatson, AS. Familton, AM. Nicol: Animal and Veterinary Sciences Group.

A-M. Keown: Department of Wool Science and Technology.

A-2

1.1 LIVESTOCK FEED REQUIREMENTS AND LIVEWEIGHT CHARTS

1.1.1 Introduction to Terms and References Used

"Dry Matter":

For the sake of convenience, feed requirements have been expressed in terms of kilograms of Dry Matter (kg DM - see Note 1. below) rather than in Megajoules of Metabolisable Energy (MJME - see Note 2. below).

Converting the kg DM figures to MJME is simply done by multiplying by the metabolisable energy content of the feed - refer to "Farm Conditions" below.

Note J: "Dry Matter" ^is a standardised measure of feed quantity: it is the weight of feed after all the moisture has been extracted from it. The Dry Matter contents of various feeds can be seen in Section 1.11.1, page A-1l2; for example dry stalky ryegrass pasture has a DM content of 28%, or, put another way, it has a moisture content of72%.

Note 2: "Metabolisable Energy" (lvfE) ^is a good measure of the nutritive value of feed -ME is the proportion of energy absorbed from the feed by the digestive

tract and retained for metabolic purposes. The units of ME are megajoules (lvfJ).

All feeds can be ranked on their metabolisable energy content as a proportion of feed dry matter (MID value, expressed as MJME/kg DM) to indicate their value

to ruminants. The MID value of a feed may be called the "ME Concentration" of thatfeed; refer to Section 1.1l.1,pagesA-111 toA-114. For example, dry stalky ryegrass pasture has a ME concentration of8.0.

Farm Conditions:

Throughout Section 1.1, the assumption is made that stock are grazed on mixed length, leafy, ryegrass/white clover pasture, which has a Metabolisable Energy Concentration of approximately 11.0 MIME per kg DM. Hence, if the feed requirement for an animal is shown as say, 1.0 kg DM per day, this figure can be converted into MJME by multiplying by 11.0. That is, the animal requires 11.0 MIME per day. If stock are to be fed on higher quality feed, such as short, leafy, spring pasture with a ME concentration of 11.8 (see Section 1.11.1, page A-1l2), they will require less feed than that shown (11.0 + 11.8 x 100 = 93 %; that is 7 % less DM required). If however, the feed is of lower quality, such as "autumn saved" pasture (fed in winter) with a ME concentration of 10.0, they will require more feed than shown (11.0 + 10.0 x 100 =

110 %; that is 10 % more DM required).

The assumption is also made that in estimating nonnal energy requirements for grazing, walking etc., stock are grazed on 'good' hill country (apart from dairy stock -

and water is some distance away, or if climatic conditions are harsh). In these conditions, 10% to 20% more feed may be required.

For stock being run in very favourable conditions, 10% to 15% less feed may be required e.g. on flat land, andlor where pasture is plentiful and stock can obtain their feed requirements with only a few hours grazing per day. Note that it is assumed that dairy cattle are only run on easier terrain; no adjustment is required in their case.

Pasture Terms:

(See also Note 3, below).

Many pastoral farmers control animal intake by formally "budgeting" their feed to anima!s. This involves knowing the animal requirements, and knowing the pasture conditions to meet this demand. The following pasture terms are commonly used.

Pre-Grazing Pasture Mass:

This is the total amount of dry matter per hectare prior to grazing. It is expressed in kg DM per hectare (kg DMlha). Generally, at constant stocking rate as pre-grazing pasture mass increases, DM intake of animals increases. Pre-grazing pasture mass can be measured, but mostly it is estimated by eye-appraisal. Some of the liveweight charts in the following sections indicate the recommended levels of Pre-Grazing Pasture Mass for various types of livestock.

Post-Grazing Pasture Mass:

(often called "Residual Dry Matter"). This is the total dry matter per hectare left after grazing. Units are again kg DM per hectare (kg DMlha). Residual dry matter is a very useful measure in its own right to predict intakes of animals. As residual DM decreases, animal intake decreases e.g. sheep grazing to a residual dry matter of 900 kglha may have intakes of 2.0 - 2.5 kg DMiday, while if they are grazing to a residual of 500 kglha then intakes will be only about 1 kg/day. Target liveweight charts in the following sections indicate the recommended levels of residual dry matter which are necessary to achieve the required animal growth rates.

Pasture Allowance:

This is the total amount of pasture (kg DM) allocated per animal each day. Its units are kg DMianimalfday. Generally, as allowance increases, intakes of animals increase.

However, used by itself, allowance does not fully describe grazing conditions and often to be meaningful allowance is used in conjunction with pre-grazing herbage mass e.g. ewes with an allowance of 5 kg DMiewe/day at a pre-grazing pasture mass of 1000 kg DMiha will have lower intakes than ewes with an allowance of 5 kg/DMiewe/dayat a pre-grazing herbage mass of 2000 kg DMiha. This is because at a higher pre-grazing pasture mass it is easier for animals to harvest pasture and therefore in a certain time intake will be higher.

Note 3: More detail about these terms, and the associations between them and animal intake and performance can be found in "Livestock Feeding on Pasture ", see reference list over page. Further information on estimating pasture dry matter, feed budgeting etc., can be found in Section 2.10.

A-4

References:

Information from a number of sources has been adapted and condensed to create this section on "Livestock Feed Requirements". It has been designed for use by fanners and other practitioners. Further and more detailed information can be found in a number of useful texts, including:

1. "Livestock Feeding on Pasture", N.Z.S.A.P. (1987), Occasional Publication No. 10.

*

2. "Supplementary Feeding", N.z.S.A.P. (1980), Occasional Publication No.7.

*

3. "Milk Production from Pasture", Holmes and Wilson (1984).

4. Pork Industry Board 'Pigfax' publications.

5. "Sheep and Cattle Nutrition", M.A.F. Agricultural Research Division (1979).

6. "Feed Budgeting", M.A.F. Advisory Services Division (1976).

*

Available from Lincoln University Bookshop.

1.1.2 Breeding Ewe (and Lamb) Feed Requirements and Liveweight Chart (See also Sections 1.1.1 & 1.1.3)

(1) Weaned Ewes in Summer:

a) Maintenance* requirements (adult, non-pregnant sheep):

Ewe Liveweight 45 kg 55 kg 65 kg

Dry Matter Requirements

0.80 to 0.85 kg DM per head/day 0.90 to 1.00 kg DM

1.05 to 1.15 kg DM

*

"maintenance" Implies that animals are neither losing nor gaining liveweight.

b) Feed Requirements to Increase Liveweight

Initial Livewei 45 kg 55 kg 65 kg

Liveweight Gain (gramslday**):

50g 1100

1.10 kg DMiday 11.45 kg DMiday 1 . 2 5 " 1.55"

1 . 3 0 " 1.65

150

1.65 kg DM/day 1.90 "

2.10

** A liveweight gain of 50 g/day equates to approximately 1 kg gain in 3 weeks; 100 g/day equates to 1 kg gain in 10 days; 150 g/day (maximum likely gain) equates to 1 kg in 1 week.

In general, mature ewes require an extra (over maintenance) 5.5 to 7.3 kg of dry matter to put on 1 kg of liveweight. If however ewes have been losing weight, and are then put onto good feed, they will initially require only 2.7 to 3.6 kg of DM to put on 1 kg of liveweight, because of the high water content in regained tissue.

c) Liveweight Loss

In a liveweight loss situation, feed requirements would be less than maintenance by 0.15 kg DM for each 100 grams of weight lost per day.

A-6

(2) Feeding Ewes for Tupping:

The figures in (a) and (b) above provide the basic infonnation required. Some sources recommend feeding ewes at up to 1.5 times their nonnal maintenance ration during 'flushing'. Based on this, ewes would require approximately:

Initial Ewe Liveweight 45 kg 55 kg

Kg DMihead/day 1.20 to 1.28 1.35 to 1.50

(3) Late Autumn to Mid Winter (early pregnancy to 2 - 3 months before lambing):

During early to mid pregnancy the foetallamb(s) have a negligible effect on ewe feed requirements. Ewes are typically fed at about maintenance rations.

Ewe 3 months 2 Months

Liveweight Before Lambing Before Lambing

45 kg 0.89-0.90 kg DMiday 0.90-0.95 kg DMiday

55 kg 0.95-1.05 " l.00-1.10 "

65 kg 1.10-1.20 1.15-1.25

(4) Late Winter I Pre-Lamb I Start of Lambing:

During the last 6-8 weeks of pregnancy, growth of the foetallamb(s) places extra requirements on the ewe, and feed requirements increase. If feed requirements are not met the ewe's body reserves (fat) are used to provide energy for the foetal lamb(s).

Ewe Month Before 2 Weeks Before Onset of

Liveweight Lambing Lambing Lambing

45 kg 1.05 - 1.10 kg DMiday 1.15 - 1.20 kg DM 1.30 - 1.35 kg DM 55 kg 1.15 - 1.25 " 1.25 - 1.35

"

1.40 - 1.50 "

65 kg 1.30 - 1.40 1.40 - 1.50 " 1.55 - 1.65 Twin-bearing ewes require more feed than those carrying singles, particularly in the fmal weeks before lambing, i.e. up to 20 to 25% more feed than shown above. However ewes at the end of pregnancy are seldom able to eat sufficient feed to meet their total requirements, especially if they are carrying twins or are overfat. (It follows then, that the feed prOVided should be of high quality).

(5) Feed Requirements After Lamb Drop:

(figures are kg DM per head per day)

Weeks After Lamb DrOJ!

Ewe Livewei2ht First Week Third Week Sixth Week Ninth Week 45 kg - with single lamb 1.60-1.90 1.90 - 2.20 1.80 - 2.20 1.60 - 1.90 55 kg - with single lamb 1.80 - 2.25 2.30 - 2.60 2.00 - 2.40 1.80 - 2.10 - with twins 2.35 - 2.65 2.70 - 3.00 2.50 - 3.00 1.95 - 2.25 65 kg - with single lamb 1.90 - 2.45 2.50 - 2.80 2.20 - 2.50 1.90 - 2.20 - with twins 2.50 - 2.80 2.90 - 3.20 2.70 - 3.20 2.05 - 2.35

Plus grass eaten per

-

^{0.25 0.50 0.80}

lamb

Some sources simply recommend feeding lactating ewes at up to 3 times their 'normal' maintenance ration.

(6) Feeding Ewes After Shearing:

Feed requirements after shearing are said to increase by approximately 10 to 20%

in the summer and 50 to 70% in the winter, for a period of 1 to 3 weeks, depending on the feed supply and weather conditions. Based on this, adult sheep would require approximately:

Sheep Liveweight 45 kg 55 kg 65 kg

Feed Requirements After Shearing in:

Summer Winter

0.90-1.00 kg DM/day 1.20-1.45 kg DM/day 1.00-1.20 " 1.35-1.70 "

1.15-1.40 1.55-1.95

A-8

>

^I

~

Figure 1.1: Ewe Liveweight Chart and Management (Chart produced by MA.F. Information)

Recommended levels of Post-Grazing Pasture Mass (Residual Dry Matter) are indicated at the bottom of the chart.

70

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1.1.3 Lamb/Hogget Feed Requirements and Liveweight Chart (See also Sections 1.1.1 and 1.1.2)

Feed requirements depend mainly on three factors; liveweight, rate of liveweight gain, and the sex of the animal.

Tables 1.1 and 1.2 below, and over page, show estimated feed requirements for ramlwether lambs, and ewe lambs/hoggets:

Table 1.1: Feed Requirements of Ram and Wether Lambs

Initial Liveweight 20 kg 30 kg 40 kg

(figures are kg DM per head per day)

Growth RateILiveweight Gain· (grams per day):

Nil Gain 100g 0.55-0.60 kg 0.85 kg 0.75-0.80 kg 1.20 kg 0.95-1.00 kg 1.45 kg

150g 1200g 1.00 kg

I

^{1.15 kg}

1.35 kg 1.55 kg 1.70 kg 1.90 kg

300g 1.40 kg 1.90 kg 2.35 kg

*Growth RatelLiveweight Gain: Note (1) below is included to assist readers to estimate likely growth figures for male lambs at different stages:

Note (1): 20 kg weaned male lambs (Nov. / Dec.) would need to grow at about 110 to 130 grams per day through summer/autumn to achieve a 13.5 kg carcase (30-32 kg liveweight) by mid-March, or a 15.0 kg carcase (33 to 35 kg liveweight) by mid-April.

In general, male lambs (20 kg) require an extra (over maintenance) 3 kg of dry matter to put on t kg of liveweight. Heavier male hoggets (40 kg) require an extra 4.5 kg of dry matter to put on 1 kg.

A-tO

Table 1.2: Feed Requirements of Ewe Lambs / Hoggets (figures are kg DM per head per day)

Growth RatelLiveweight Gain

**

(grams per day):

Initial Liveweight 20 kg 30 kg 40 kg

Nil Gain 0.60 kg 0.80 kg 1.00 kg

50 g 0.75 kg 1.05 kg 1.25 kg

100g 0.90 kg 1.25 kg 1.60 kg

150 g 1.15 kg 1.55 kg 1.90 kg

200g 1.30 kg 1.75 kg 2.25 kg

* *

Growth RatelLiveweight Gain: Note (2) is included below to assist readers to estimate likely growth figures for ewe lambs at different stages:

Note (2): 18 to 20 kg weaned ewe lambs (Nov. / Dec.) would need to grow at about 100 to 120 grams per day through summer/autumn to achieve 35 kg liveweight by mid-May; at least 40 grams _per day through winter to achieve 40 kg by mid-September; and about 110 to 130 grams per day through spring/early summer to achieve 52 kg by mid January (as 2n.

In general, ewe lambs (20 to 25 kg) require an extra (over maintenance) 4 kg of dry matter to put on 1 kg ofliveweight. Heavier ewe hoggets (45 kg) require an extra 6.5 kg of dry matter to put on 1 kg (similar to mature ewes).

See page A-8 for feed requirements after shearing.